SHEEP HUSBANDKY 

^#^^\ hi tl)c 0outl): 




COMPRISING A TREATISE ON THE 



ACCLIMATION OF SHEEP IN THE SOUTHERN STATES, 

AND 

AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS. 

ALSO, 

A COMPLETE MANUAL 

OF 

BREEDING, SUMMER AND WINTER MANAGEMENT, AND OF 
THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES. 

it)itl) portrait© anb otljer Jllnatrationa. 

IN A SE^TES OF LETTERS FROM 

HENRY S. RANDALL, Esq. 

OF corila..'1j TjLi-i.>.;:, i-.. i. 
TO 

S R. F. W. A L L S T N, Esq. 

OF SOOTH CAKOUNA. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED BY J. S. SKINNER & SON. 

1848. 



flnleied, according to Act of Coyigress, in the year 1S48, by 

J. S. SKINNER ^ SON, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Ccnirt of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



Prinlod by T. K. &l P. G. Cdlliiis. 



PREFACE. 



So full and complete is the exposition of the subject as discussed 
in the following pages, and so clearly are the scope of the work and 
the circumstances which prevailed with its accomplished author, to 
pass it through our hands to the public, explained in his own " Intro- 
duction," that only in compliance with a common custom in book- 
making, might any thing have been deemed necessary in the way of 
preface ; were it not to acquit ourselves of the obligation to tender 
thus publicly to Col. Randall, not our own thanks merely, but those 
of' the agricultural community, for the great benefit which must ensue 
to it, in the proportion that this instructive contribution to the stock 
of our agricultural knowledge and literature may command the atten- 
tion to which it is, on every account, so well entitled. 

An agricultural correspondence, reaching far back, and spreading 
widely over the Southern States, to which has been more recently 
added considerable extent of personal observation, had with us, 
already established the conviction, that in no other part of our coun- 
try, perhaps, does there exist a resource at once so fruitful, and so 
little availed of, as that which is possessed in that region, for the pro- 
secution of this — one of the most interesting and important branches 
of Husbandry that any country can enjoy. 

But while it has been easy to perceive this defect so apparent in their 
agricultural economy, amounting in the aggregate to a national loss 
of no inconsiderable magnitude ; it was not so easy to expose, as 
Col. Randall has done, the fallacy of the difficulties that were sup- 
posed to stand in the way, or to indicate how the real impediments 
which do exist may be overcome, or materially mitigated. 

Something of these imaginary difficulties,, for successful Sheep 
Husbandry, may, as we believe, be assumed to have their origin in the 
prejudices engendered in the minds of Southern agriculturists, by the 
sweeping condemnation of it to be found in the celebrated and deserv- 
edly popular essays of Arator, by Col. John Taylor — clarum vene- 
rahile nomen! and it may be that these prejudices are referable in a 
degree, also, to the concurrent opinions of the no less celebrated John 
Randolph, " of Roanoke," who, even on the floor of Congress, gave 
them utterance in vehement and bitter denunciation against the harm- 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

less animal itself — going so far in his animosity to it, and to aA en- 
couragement of the great industry which it was formed to subserve, 
as to declare, that he would at any time go out of his way " to kick a 
sheep I" Nor would it be unreasonable to apprehend that these im- 
pressions against the policy and profit of sheep-breeding, as an import- 
ant object of attention for the Southern land-holder, have taken root 
the more kindly in the minds of a people unaccustomed, if not na- 
turally averse to that careful and minute attention which the successful 
prosecution of this business demands — a people whose sons, it may be 
feared, still find it easier, if not more commendable, to follow in the 
venerated footsteps of their sires, than to encounter for themselves the 
labor of investigation, and the trouble (together with some expense) 
of new arrangements incident to every new employment of labor and 
cajjital. The general impression, in fact, is, (the reader will judge 
how far it is just,) that cultivators of the soil everywhere are, of all 
classes, the least apt to embark in any new enterprise, however pro- 
mising. They talk and talk about it, but rarely go about ; and per- 
haps it may be better that it should be so ; yet it is well to remember 
that precipitancy is one thing, and torpor quite another ! We once 
knew a farmer (so called) in Calvert county, who, being told, as he sat 
toasting himself in the chimney corner on a cold winter's night, that 
the house was on fire ! without moving from his seat, answered, " call 
the people !" 

In opposition to all that has been urged or imagined against Sheep 
Husbandry in the South, on the score either of ill-adapted climate, 
deficiency of suitable forage, want of adequate demand for wool, or 
other obstacles, the whole subject has been so admirably and thoroughly 
canvassed in the Avork here offered, that further argument would be 
superfluous ; otherwise we might oppose to the hitherto prevailing be- 
lief, if not prejudice, the experience of some, on a limited scale, and 
the well-settled opinion of yet many more among the most enlightened 
of our acquaintances in that region — gentlemen uniting ample oppor- 
tunities with close habits of observation on all questions of rural 
economy, and who have not hesitated to express the confident belief, 
that profitable and interesting as has been the growing of cattle in 
western Virginia, an equal amount of capital and attention, devoted 
to sheep and wool groiving in the same section of country, would be 
yet more remunerating. Looking for reliable information yet further 
south, and back to a period more remote, even anterior to our decla- 
ration of independence, it may not be out of place to quote an evi- 
dently careful and intelligent author of a work on the climate and 
products of each of the then English colonies. Speaking of Creorgia, 
and her well-ascertained adaptation to the growth of silk, the vine, 
the olive, madder and wool, he remarks : " Wool, we [England] take 



PREFACE. 5 

in large quantities from abroad, because it is of a kind we cannot pro- 
duce in England : our colonies on the continent of North America, 
South of Neio York, produce a wool entirely similar to the Spanish. 
No staple they could produce would, therefore, be more advantageous 
to Great Britain. It is well known that a piece of fine broadcloth 
cannot be made without Spanish wool ; it is also known that the 
Spaniards have of late years made great efforts to work up their own 
wool ; if they should succeed, or if they should by any other means 
prevent the export of it, our woollen fabrics, though they might not 
be stopped, would at least be burdened with a fresh expense and a 
new trouble ; all which would be prevented by encouraging the import 
of wool from America : and at the same time that this good effect was 
wrought, another would be brought about, in cramping the manufac- 
tures of the colonies.'' 

Unfortunately for the agricultural interest of our country particu- 
larly, the desire to " cramp the manufactures of the colonies," here so 
candidly avowed as the settled policy of England, not only survived 
the Revolution, but has been so well fostered by our own subserviency 
to it, as to render our independence, in respect of this and other no 
less important industrial pursuits, rather nominal and fictitious than 
substantial and true ; nevertheless, Avith the odds of pauper labor and 
immense capital against us, thanks to the ingenuity and enterprise of 
our people, we need not despair of final success with any thing like fair 
consideration on the part of our own government. For this opinion 
we need have no better authority than that of Samuel Lawrence, 
the enlightened and liberal proprietor of the Middlesex Mills, at 
Lowell, who says, " fhe business of manufacturing wool in this coun- 
try is on a better basis than ever before, inasmuch as the character, 
skill, and capital engaged in it are such as to defy foreign competi- 
tion." Occasional revulsions, such as the present, will occur from 
causes abroad over which we have no control, but let not the wool 
grower relax in the care of his flock, for the same far-seeing manu- 
facturer has declared that he could point to articles of wool now im- 
ported, that will require thirty millions of pounds of medium and fine 
quality to supply the demand. 

After all, then, on viewing the importance of the inquiry to nume- 
rous friends for whose welfare we profess to entertain unaffected con- 
cern, and the great extent of the district which seemed to us to be so well 
adapted to the growth of sheep and wool — the magnitude of the interests 
involved swelled upon the contemplation, begetting a conviction that as 
a question of practical agriculture, it was not to be worthily and well 
treated by a few hasty and superficial essays, or by more elaborate 
compilations in relation to the oft-repeated natural history of the ani- 
mal, its prominence in scriptural annals, &c., unsustained by that 



6 PREFACE. 



laborious and discriminating comparison of facts and authorities to 
illustrate its uses and its value, and by tliat fulness of personal ex- 
perience in the breeding and management of the various races, " in 
sickness and in health," Avhich constitute the excellence of these let- 
ters to Col. Allston. 

Under all these circumstances, the reader of the work here pre- 
sented may well judge how fortunate that it should have been under- 
taken, con amore, by a gentleman so well prepared by general scholar- 
ship, by exact practical knowledge, and by extensive inquiry into the 
mercantile and manufacturing, as well as the agricultural bearings of 
the question. 

It is due, however, no less in justice to ourselves than to truth, to 
add, that in urging him to undertake it, we had no idea of committing 
the author to such an amount of labor, even had we foreseen that 
being, as he says, a " labor of love," it would have thus ended in pro- 
ducing, as in our judgment it has, decidedly, the best work on the sub- 
ject of Sheep, that has at any time appeared in our country. 

May we not refer, for the soundness of this opinion, as well to 
-its originality and strictly American character, as to the comprehen- 
siveness with which it presents the subject in its various relations, in- 
structive alike to the merchant, the manufacturer, the political 
inquirer, and the legislator ; as to the practical farmer ? Nor is it to 
be characterized alone by its utility in these respects ; for the reader 
will agree with us that its entire fairness and freedom from narrow 
vicAvs and local prejudices, much enlarge, in a moral and instructive 
view, its title to general confidence and favor. 

Finally, as far as the public judgment may be anticipated in refer- 
ence to a production originally appearing disadvantageously, in de- 
tached parts, and not until now finished and embodied ; if we may 
conclude from the favorable manner in which such portions have been 
reviewed and recommended, by some of the leading journals of the 
country, the writer may well felicitate himself on having rendered a 
most acceptable service not only to his brother farmers, but to his 
countrymen generally ; while we may unaffectedly, and, as we think, 
confidently add, it establishes for Col. llandall himself a claim to stand 
in front of those whose pens, some of them under high motives of 
patriotism, have been engaged in illustrating one of the most impor- 
tant of all our industrial pursuits; nay, one which may be considered 
essential, in an eminent degree, to our national independence. 

J. S. SKINNER, 

Late Editor of the Farmers' Library, 
{now of The Plough, the. Loom, and the Anvil.) 
July 4, 1848. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The subject of Sheep Husbandry has recently attracted more attention in our 
Southern and South-western States, than at any previous period. The want of a 
staple or product, the cultivation of which should render productive the capital in- 
vested in millions of acres of mountain and other lands, which do not now yield a 
farthing of income, and which, from their soils, situation, or other circumstances, 
are unadapted to the growth of any of the present Southern staples, has struck every 
Southern man, as well as every traveller of ordinary intelligence, who has passed 
through the regions indicated. The want, too, of some class of domestic animals 
to constitute the basis, or pivot as it were, of a system of convertible husbandry on 
the tillage lands of the South, to take the place of the present imperfect rotations 
of crops, and new and old field-system, has become apparent to many of her more 
investigating agriculturists. 

The fact that the mountain and other unproductive lands alluded to cannot be 
made to profitably yield any vegetable products but pasturage ; that for the present, 
and for a long time to come, at least, the bulk of them will not afford a pasturage 
adapted to the support of large animals ; could not but suggest the growing of wool, 
as their best, if not their only available staple. The similarity of their general cli- 
mate, too, with that where wool is most cheaply grown on the Eastern Continent, 
was a consideration promising favorably to this husbandry. And, finally, it had 
not failed to strike men of ordinary commercial intelligence, that of those animal 
staples, to the production of which a Southern climate is adapted, the Sheep fur- 
nishes a vastly more marketable one than any of the larger grazing animals. 

The superiority of the Sheep over other animals for supporting the fertility of 
tillage lands, by converting a portion of their products into manure, was not so 
apparent. But the well-known fact that they receive the preference for this pur- 
pose, in some of the best agricultural countries of the world, made it sufficiently 
probable to demand a full investigation, before adoptingan adverse conclusion, espe- 
cially as what has been said in relation to climate and the marketableness of animal 
staples, was as applicable to these lands, in the South, as to those adapted only to 
grass. 

But Sheep Husbandry as a system, and especially a system tested by experience, 
was scarcely known in any of the Southern States excepting in western Virginia. 
Whether the theoretical considerations and natural circumstances which apparently 
favored its introduction would be met, in practice, with unforeseen obstacles, was a 
matter calling for grave circumspection- The Southern agriculturist is ever wary 
of innovation, and very properly averse to rash experiment. He knew, it is true, 
that his roving and untended " native" sheep obtained subsistence, and found no 

7 



8 INTRODUCTION. 



enemies to their health but the wolf and cur, on all the Southern zones. But 
whether the local climate and herbage of those different zones — the low, level, 
Tertiary sands of the Atlantic plain — the granite hills of the middle, and the ele- 
vated Paleozoic or Transition regions of the mountain zone — would be found to 
agree with the more valuable breeds of sheep ; whether their wool would retain its 
qualities or degenerate in these several localities ; whether a greatly increased sup- 
ply of wool would find a remunerating price in market; whether the mountains 
could be converted into sheep-pastures, and wool produced on them without an 
expense which would absorb all the profits ; whether Sheep Husbandry could be 
made a substitute for " resting," or expensive artificial manures, in restoring to the 
cotton, tobacco, and grain lands of the middle and tide-water zones the fertility 
withdrawn by tillage ; and various other important correlative questions were all 
problems to him. And to add to the difficulties of forming a correct opinion, and 
especially of instituting safe and satisfactory experiments, he was ignorant of all 
the practical details and manipulations of Sheep Husbandry : he knew little of the 
various breeds, and their respective adaptation to his wants. 

For information on the subject of practical Sheep Husbandry and breeds of sheep, 
there are a multitude of European, and several American works, of great value. 
But for the answers to the questions in the preceding paragraph, which involve the 
particular bearings and adaptation of this husbandry, of the different breeds, etc., 
to the agricultural circumstances and wants of the various regions of the South — 
where was the inquirer to find the desired information 1 Some well-written letters, 
embracing portions of these topics, have appeared from time to time in our agricul- 
tural journals. They have been of great value in drawing attention to the subject. 
But they have not usually occupied limits sufficient for the examination of more 
than a single phase of the general subject, or they have been mere coup d^ails of 
that subject, omitting all but a few important facts and considerations of a general 
character. They have, too, usually been replied to, or published contemporaneously 
in the same or other agricultural journals, with contradictory statements — some- 
times with crude and erroneous speculations— calculated to confuse or mislead the 
inexperienced inquirer. Beyond these occasional Letters in the agricultural jour- 
nals, nothing, so tar as I am aware, has appeared on this subject. 

A practical farmer, I have bred nearly all the approved varieties of almost every 
kind of domestic stock — of every kind commonly kept on Northern farms — and 
have been familiar with the details of their management and husbandry. I have 
owned flocks of sheep, and been more or less familiar with them, from my child- 
hood ; and for the last fifteen years have made their economy, their habits, their 
comparative profitableness with other kinds of stock, and the comparative value of 
their breeds, matters of careful and constant observation and experiment. 

When Corresponding Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society, a 
few years since, the facts drawn out by me in an extensive correspondence with 
eminent Southern agriculturists, united to what knowledge I had previously ob- 
tained by reading and personal observation of the Southern States, led me to the 
impression that there were numerous considerations and natural circumstances 
strongly indicating the expediency of introducing wool-growing extensively into 
those States. But at that time, my attention, in common with that of many if not 
most, of the Northern flock-masters, was turned towards the prairies of the North- 
west, as a region capable of sweeping away all American competition in this branch 
of husbandry. Glowing estimates and calculations had been predicated on very 
partial experiments. The value of the natural grasses, the character of tiie winters 
and general climate, and the general facilities of the prairies for wool-growing, were 
then little understood here, and had been made the subjects of much favorable exag- 



INTRODUCTION. 



geration. Facts subsequently ascertained, have, it cannot be denied, materially 
changed the impressions of our flock-masters on this subject. Whether correctly 
or incorrectly, they no longer fear Western competition in growing fine wool. My 
own coincides with the popular impression on this topic, if we consider that com- 
petition in its relations to a period not far distant in the future. 

The adoption of these views led me to again turn my attention, never entirely 
withdrawn, more particularly to the capabilities of the South for this branch of hus- 
bandry. My conclusions and the reasons for them will be found in the following 
Letters. In a letter to Hon. Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, pub- 
lished in his Treasury Report of 1845, and in a series of letters published in the 
Virginia " Valley Farmer," the same year, I stated some of the general conclu- 
sions I had then arrived at on this topic. These publications were followed by 
letters from gentlemen residing in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, making farther inquiries, and usually impart- 
ing more or less local information on the subject. Some of these were practical 
men, only seeking information on practical points ; others, eminent for intelligence 
and legislative experience, embraced a more comprehensive field of investigation, 
and sought from me, as probably from other sources, to ascertain by a wide range 
of general facts and statistics, the probable bearing, now and in future, of an exten- 
sive system of wool-growing on the Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, domes- 
tic consumption — in short, the whole domestic economy of our Southern States. 

Answers to these questions demanded careful investigation, and involved a great 
variety and complexity of details in the practical department of the subject, ren- 
dered far more numerous by the wide differences existing between the soils, esta- 
blished husbandry, and even the climates, of the three distinct and well-defined 
zones already alluded to. The location of some of my correspondents was on the 
mountains of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Tennessee — others on the hilly zone of 
the same States — others on the Tertiary sands of the tide-water zone, and the Cre- 
taceous plains of the Mississippi and Arkansas. To give opinions on all the topics 
referred to, and in reference to natural circumstances so various, supported by even 
a respectable show of corroborating facts, was an undertaking requiring considera- 
ble time and labor : to repeat them separately to each correspondent, was wholly 
out of the question. 

Requested by Mr. Skinner, a little more than a year since, to prepare a series of 
Letters on Sheep Husbandry, and especially on Sheep Husbandry in the South, for 
The Farmers' Library, it occurred to me that a compliance with his request would 
enable me to answer each of my correspondents by once writing; and moreover, I 
could feel, under such circumstances, that I could properly afford to bestow an 
amount of time and elaboration on my communications which I should otherwise 
find impracticable. And I confess, I also thought if the information I could impart 
would prove of value to my personal correspondents, it might also prove so to many 
others among the numerous readers of a popular agricultural magazine. The liberal 
offer of the Publishers to jirovide all such cuts as I should choose to direct, was an 
additional inducement to adopt this medium of communication. I have often felt 
the want of these in agricultural letters of my own, and in reading the works of 
others. In describing a breed of sheep, for example, to a person who has never 
seen them, the best chosen words convey but a vague impression. In many other 
cases also, cuts exhibit at a glance what it would require much circumlocution to 
describe ; and they in many instances convey ideas to the mind with a definiteness, 
correctness, and exemption from possibility of misunderstanding, which words 
alone never could. The cuts include portraits of all the breeds which I supposed 
could of possibility possess, or claim to possess, superior value, for any region or 



B 



10 INTRODUCTION. 



locality within the United States ; all the necessary anatomical fifrures, with those 
of the less known insect and parasitic enemies of the sheep; and finally, represen-' 
tations of every implement, fixture, or process employed in Sheep Husbandry, 
where I thought they would convey important information — and particularly new 
information — more clearly than it could be done by words. Many of the latter 
class of illustrations have never before been, so far as I am aware, attempted; and, 
representing as they do the results of years of inquiry and experiment, I trust they 
may prove of service to beginners — particularly in regions where Sheep Husbandry 
has been hitherto little known. 

The Letters were begun and concluded exclusively as a " labor of love." To 
possess the consciousness that even a limited portion of my fellow-men have been 
benefited by my labors, would be all, and the noblest recompense to which I could 
aspire. Nor do I feel, that in attempting to benefit the agriculturists of one section 
of our country, by urging them to appropriate a branch of industry now giving sub- 
sistence to those of another section, I am seeking the good of the former at the 
expense of the latter. Every region has natural advantages, or those resulting from 
the natural course of events, for different branches of industry. A right to these 
advantages enures from a right to the soil ; and the former is just as natural and 
sacred a right as the latter. To attempt to wrest them from the holder by legisla- 
tion, is oppressive ; to withhold from him any knowledge necessary to the enjoy- 
ment of them, is unfraternal and unmanly. If Virginia can grow wool, or any other 
staple, more cheaply than New York, let her do it. She will only force New York 
to fall back on the production of some other staple, or to adopt some other branch 
of industry. And why not? Why should there not be a division of production, 
where it is called for by natural circumstances, at least within the limits of a com- 
mon nation 1 It is doubtless well for every region, whether extensive or limited, 
to produce its own necessaries of life to the greatest economical extent. But an 
attempt to force Nature against her manifest capabilities, for the sake of attaining a 
fancied local independence, is to inflict a real evil, in the hope of attaining an ima- 
ginary good. History is full of instances where the prosperity of large masses of 
individuals, and even whole nations, has been crippled, in futile efforts to upbuild 
this or that branch of industry, in spite of natural obstacles, or against the compe- 
tition of regions possessing greater natural advantages. Among the foolish, selfish, 
and even iniquitous legislation of past ages, there has been none perhaps productive 
of more real mischief to human industry than the intermeddling enactments of go- 
vernments, ostensibly designed for its benefit. Masses of men, because divided by 
a rivulet, speaking a ditferent language, or owning the sway of ditferent potentates, 
have aspired to that physical independence of each other, and of the whole world, 
W'hich the God of nature rendered economically, if not absolutely impossible. The 
vexatious restrictions on trade and commerce imposed in pursuit of this object by 
one government, were met by retaliatory ones by others, until international com- 
mercial legislation became a confused labyrinth of enactments — their absurdity only 
equaled by their mischievousness. And like the elephants formerly used by bar- 
barian nations in battle, they nearly as often trampled down their friends as their 
enemies. The era of these things is rapidly passing away. That patriotism which 
includes only a province or State, among one common people, is beginning to be 
recognised as narrow and sordid : nay, -among intelligent men, that philanthropy is 
beginning to be thought meagre and unexpansive which stops even at the boundaries 
of Nations. 

In preparing the following Letters, I have labored under disadvantages insepara- 
ble from the circumstances under which they have been prepared. I have written 
them from month to month, amid the hurry of other pursuits, with little idea of what 



INTRODUCTION. 11 



would be their ultimate limits — usually with one or more of the immediately pre- 
ceding numbers in the hands of the printer, and consequently not under my inspec- 
tion. I have not therefore had that opportunity to proportion the space devoted to 
the several topics, avoid repetition, and correct errors, possessed by him who com- 
pletes and revises, before any portion of his manuscript is rendered unalterable by 
stereotyping. 

Reliance on insufficient authority has in a very few instances led me into errors, 
but fortunately, so far as discovered, they have been of trifling importance, and in 
relation to matters of no especial moment. Those thought worthy of notice have 
been corrected in subsequent parts of the body of the work. The causes I have 
named, therefore, affect rather the literary character of the Letters, than their 
general accuracy. 

In stating important facts and conclusions, I have consulted such writers of repu- 
tation as were within my reach. Among the foreign ones who have prepared works 
on Sheep Husbandry, or expressed important opinions on some of its separate 
topics or facts, or who have alluded to the Sheep Husbandry of particular countries 
or nations, reference has been had to the following, either by consulting their works, 
as I have in most instances been able to do — or by quotations from them found in 
the works of other writers of reputation ; — Anderson, Bakewell, Barnes, Barrow, 
BischofF, Blacklock, Bourgoing, Bright, Carr, Coventry, Culley, Cunningham, 
D'Arboval, Darwin, Daubenton, Dick, Ellman, Gasparin, Gilbert, Goese, Harrison, 
Hogg, Hood, Howitt, Hubbard, Jacob, Lang, Lasteyrie, Leeuwenhoek, Lichsten- 
stein, Linnajus, Low, Luccock, Maitland, Malte-Brun, McCuUoch, Moffiit, 
McKenzie, Paget, Parkinson, Parry, Petri, Pictet, Powell, Reaumur, Rodolphi, 
Sinclair, Slade, Southey, Spallanzani, Spooner, Stephens, Swaine, Trail, Trimmer, 
Valasnieri, Vanderdonk, Von Thaer, Walz, Western, Willmer & Smith, Youatt, 
Young, and some others. Of our domestic writers, I have aimed to consult all of 
the most prominent ones. It is not necessary to enumerate them, extending, as the 
list would, to hundreds. 

The examination of these writers, foreign and domestic, has been no recent under- 
taking with me. For years, I have found it a source both of instruction and plea- 
sure, to peruse their works. Where they have proposed any thing new to me, which 
I thought promised favorable results, I have usually sought the first opportunity to 
put their propositions to the experimentum crucis of actual trial. I have often thus 
learned valuable facts. But I have nearly or quite as often ascertained that what 
may be true of one breed, in one climate, or under one set of circumstances, is not 
true when all or a part of these conditions are changed. The English and German 
systems of management, for example, I regard as almost wholly inapplicable here, 
on account of the entire different relation which the prices of land and labor bear 
toward each other in those countries and our own. And I sometimes have had the 
conviction forced upon me, that writers even of reputation have assumed positions 
in relation to practical matters, which they must have derived from other sources 
than direct personal experience. 

While I have carefully reviewed and collated the opinions of other writers on 
doubtful practical points, I have in all instances, as will be seen in the folldwing 
pages, preferred the results of personal experience and observation, to adverse 
authority, however eminent. Compilations, it seems to me, are sufficiently abun- 
dant, and I have thought it better to give my own opinions, leaving them to stand or 
fall, as they shall be found accurate or inaccurate. W"here I have found it necessary 
to rely on others for any fact, or have quoted their opinions, I have uniformly given 
them credit. To my kind correspondents, particularly my Southern correspondents 
—many of whose communications are not published on account of their reluctance 



12 INTRODUCTION. 



to be cited as authority for facts, where their modesty leads them to underrate their ^ 
own comparative knowledge and experience — I tender my thanks for their 
assistance. 

I have addressed the Letters to Col. R. F. W. Allston, of Waccamaco Beach, 
near Georgetown, South Carolina — a gentleman to whom I am indebted for much 
valuable information on the subject of Southern Agriculture, and who has ever j 
evinced a most earnest desire to contribute to the improvement of that Agriculture. 



Cortland Village, N. Y., April 3, 1848. 



HENRY S. RANDALL. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
LETTER I, 

Effect of Climate osr the Health and Wool-producing Qualities of Sheep. 15 

LETTER IL 
Effect of Climate (continued) ^u 23 

LETTER IIL 

Adaptation of the Soils, Herbage, &c., of the Southern States to Sheep 

Husbandry. — 1. Of the Low or Tide- water Region 30 

LETTER IV. 

The Adaptation of the Soils, Herbage, &c., of the Southern States to 
Sheep Husbandry, (continued.) — 2. Of the Middle or Hilly Zone. — 
3. Of the Mountain Region 42 

LETTER V. 

Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States. — 1. Direct Profit 

on Capital invested 52 

LETTER VL 

Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States. — 2. As the Basis of 

Amelioration in Naturally Sterile and Worn-out Soils 66 

LETTER Vn. 

Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern States. — 3. By Giving to 

Southern Agriculture a Mixed and Convertible Character. 4. By 

Furnishing the Raw Material for the Manufacture of Domestic 
Woollens ^ i^g 

LETTER Vm. 

Prospects of the Wool Market — Future Demand and Supply 94 

13 



14 .CONTENTS. 1 

Page 
LETTER IX. 

Prospects of the Wool Market — Future Demaxd and Supply 108 

i 
LETTER X. i 

Breeds of Sheep in the United States 129 j 

LETTER XL i 

I 

The Most Profitable Breed of Sheep for the South — Principles of i 

Breeding 153 "• 

LETTER Xn. I 

Summer Management of Sheep 173 f 

LETTER XIIL | 

Winter Management of Sheep 197 *- 

LETTER XIV. ^ 

Anatomy and Diseases of Sheep 219 j 

i 

I 

LETTER XV. j 

Anatomy of the Sheep, (continued.) — Diseases and their Treatment 234 ' 

I 
LETTER XVL j 

Diseases and their Treatment, (continued) 254 

J 
LETTER XVIL * 

Sheep Dogs, Wool Depots, &c 278 J 

i 

i 



APPENDIX 297 



^ 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY 



IN 



THE SOUTH. 



LETTER I. 

EFFECT OP CLIMATE ON THE HEALTH AND WOOL-PRODUCING 
aUALITIES OF SHEEP. 



Introductory Remarks... Wool-Growing and Manufacturing Statistics of the Southern States compared 
with those of New-York. ..Effect of Warm Climates on the Health of Sheep. ..Sheep in the Southern 
States below latitude SS". . -Ett'ect of Climate on Wool-Producing Qualities of Sheep — on the Quantity of 
the Wool. ..Weight of Fleeces in the Southern States indicated by U. S. Census of ]840 — Important Omis- 
sions in that Census — Other important Errors in it. ..Table of Weights of Fleeces in Four Counties where 
they average highest in each of the Southern States atid m New-York — Latitude, Topography and Climate 
of those Counties.. .Warmth of Climate conducive to the Production of Wool — Reasons. 

R. F. W. Allston, Esq — 

Dear Sir : That spirit which prompts communities and States to at- 
tempt to render themselves independent, so far as the supply of physical 
wants is concerned, of other communities and States, is an eminently 
proper one, up to certain limits. Beyond these, it degenerates into mere 
sectional selfishness, as deserving of reprobation in the community as in 
the individual — nay, more so, for it militates more widely against the in- 
terests and happiness of mankind. Agriculture supplies the most of our 
physical wants which are not administered to spontaneously by Nature. 
In this great department of human labor,it is not difficult to decide how far 
the inhabitants of each particular region are called upon to rear from the 
earth what their wants require. Nature herself has, in the distribution of 
soils and climates, both indicated and limited the production of many of 
the agricultural staples, by geographical boundaries, sometimes topically 

15 



16 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ! 

: :-: r. r- l 

and sometimes by whole regions. This compels those practicing Agricul- 
ture, both as individuals and masses, to make that " division of labor" ^ 
which, as in the mechanic arts, gives a better knowledge of its principles ';| 
and a greater expertness in its practical manipulations. It also creates ^ 
the necessity of exchange. Exchange is commerce, and commerce begets .' 
and diffuses civilisation. ' 

Agricultural production, then, should be controlled by the demand or 
■want, and by the adaptation of the country to such production. It would i 
be absurd, for example, for New-York to attempt to raise its own rice t 
and cotton, instead of exchanging the surplus of what it can most readily 
produce for that rice and cotton, or selling its surjilus where it is wanted, ' 
and buying the rice and cotton with the proceeds. But, on the other hand, 
it would be equally absurd for New-York to be dependent on South 
America or Australia for her wools, when she can raise that staple just as ' 
well as those countries, and thus save paying for transportation and the i 
hire or commission of the agents of exchange. I 

Though Nature both indicates and limits the production of staples by i 
soils and climates, she too rigidly enforces the primal curse, or perhaps ; 
we should say blessing, of labor, to bring forth each, indigenously, in the 
regions adapted to it, or ever to place them there, unless transported by i 
the enterprise and industry of man. The potato and maize were a recent 
gift from this continent to the eastern. The debt has been repaid by rice, , 
the sugar cane, the horse, the cow, the sheep, and a multitude of other ' 
plants and animals. How singular is the history of some of their deporta- 
tions ! The sugar cane, now furnishing an important staple in some of our 
own Southern States, originated in the eastern confines of Asia ; was not I 
vouchsafed to the Greek and Roman ; traveled into Arabia about the i 
last of the thirteenth century ; passed thence into Africa ; was carried ' 
by the Moors into Spain ; by the Spaniards and Portuguese into the West ;i 
India Islands ; and thence we received it. Rice, the great staple of i 
your own State, sir, a plant of which it has been said that it " has altered |i 
the face of the globe and the destiny of nations," originated also in Asia, ij 
and has traveled by the same slow stages, until it has reached that low i 
zone which skirts our south-eastern shores, to render its vast marshes, oth- I 
erwise useless, as profitably productive as the best grain or cotton lands * 
of the Southern States. j 

Here, sir, we find an instructive lesson. Other regions there are in our J 
Southei'n States, now, nearly as useless as would be her " hammocks " i 
without rice, inviting the introduction of some other great staple to sup- 
ply, if feasible, a home demand, and a surplus for profitable exportation. 
If this great object can be achieved, and by the same means, the husbandry i 
of the regions now under cultivation be made to assume that mixed and 
convertible character which will both add to their present proceeds, and i 
better sustain their fertility, for future demands on them, a benefit will be i 
conferred on the South the present and final results of which it would I 
be difficult to overestimate. Repudiating theoretic speculation and vague I 
conjecture — advancing just so far and no farther than we find our way - 
illumined by the broad and certain light of facts, let us inquire what im- 
portant staple there is, not now extensively produced at the South, which 
would come within and at the same time fill the requirements I have men- 
tioned. 

Woolen fabrics constitute an important item in the imports of the South- 
em States, and for these they exchange the proceeds of no inconsiderable 
proportion of their industry with the Northern States and with Europe. 

The following table will exhibit the population, and the amount of home 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



17 



production in these staples, according to the U. S. census of 1840, in the 
States south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Mississippi, (in- 
cluding Louisiana,) in 1839. To these are added, by way of comparison, 
the statistics of the State of New-York, under the same heads, for the 
same year : 

TABLE No. 1. 



States. 


Population. 


No. of Sheep. 


Lbs. of Wool. 


No. of Woolen 

Factories. 


Value of Woolen 
Man ufactured 
Goods. 




1,239,797 
753,419 
594.398 
691,392 
54,477 
590,756 
375,651 
3.52,411 
829,210 
779,825 


1,293,772 
538,279 
232,981 
267.107 
7,198 
163,243 
128,367 
98,072 
741,593 

1,008,240 


2,538,374 

625,044 

299,170 

371,303 

7,285 

220,3.53 

175,196 

49.283 

1,060,332 

1,786,847 


41 
3 
3 

26 
40 


147,792 
3,900 
1,000 
3,000 

14,000 
151,246 


North Carolina... 
South Carolina . .. 


Florida 


Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Total 


6,261,336 


4,478,852 


7,133,187 


114 


320,938 


New- York 


2,428,921 


5,118.777 


9.845.295 


323 


3,537,337 



The above is only given to indicate approximate general results ; for, 
as I shall subsequently show, the returns of the product of wool are inac- 
curate to the last degree. 

The question now arises, whence the immense disparity in the growth 
and manufacturing of wool in the State of New-York, comprising 46,000 
square miles of territory, and less than two and a half millions of popula- 
lation, and the ten States above enumerated, covering an area of 495,000 
square miles, and exceeding six millions of population 1 Is the growing of 
wool, (for we will first consider this, as the main question, leaving the sub- 
ject of manufacturing for subsequent examination,) to its present extent, 
profitable or unprofitable in the State of New-York ] I contend, and shall 
attempt to prove, that talcing a term of say ten or fifteen years, it has been 
the most profitable branch of industry carried on in the State. If this is 
true, why is it not equally profitable in the Southern States 1* Is there 
anything in their climate which renders them less favorable to the health 
or wool-producing qualities of the sheep — or is there anything in their 
topographical features, soils, herbage, or other circumstances, which unfits 
them for a natural and easy adaptation to sheep husbandry 1 Or have 
they other staples so much more profitable that it is not an object to grow 
wool? 

Having bestowed some attention on these points, and having been prac- 
tically familiar with the most minute details of sheep husbandry frorn my 
childhood, I have thought that the conclusions I have arrived at, and the 
facts on which I have based them, might not be uninteresting to you. To 
bring these facts connectedly before you, I shall necessarily be driven to 
repeat some matter from my own and the writings of others, which you 
have doubtless before seen in the publications of the day. 

Let us now take up the first of the two preceding questions ; and first I 
will call your attention to the effect of Climate. 

Sheep have been bred, time out of mind, on the Eastern Continent, 
from the Equator to the 65th degree of north latitude, from the burning 
plains of Africa and Asia, to the almQSt perpetual frosts cf Iceland. The 
Merino, (the different families of which, as will be shown, constitute the 
only varieties suitable for wool growing on a scale of any considerable 
extent,) has been bred in Europe, for ages, as far south as between the 

* When I use the words "Southern States," without farther specification, you will understand me to 
tnean the ten enumerated in Table Ist. 

(651) Q 



18 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



36th and 37th parallels of latitude, and has, within the last few years, been 
acclimated with perfect success as far north as various points in Sweden. 

If any difficulty exists in the climate of the United States, rendering it 
unsuitable for the rearing of sheep and wool, it must be its heat ; and this 
must affect the wool-producing qualities of the animal alone, and not its 
health, as the following facts will show. Thei-e were upward of 660,000 
sheep in the five most southern States, in 1839. In Florida, they have 
been acclimated as far south as the 29th degree. In Louisiana, Mississippi, 
Alabama, and Georgia, they not only flourish in the northern and more 
elevated sections, but on the low, fenny, tide-water region which skirts the 
Gulf of Mexico. In the above five States there were, in 1839, upward of 
190,000 sheep below the 32d degree of latitude, viz. : in Georgia 32,986, 
Florida 7,198, Alabama 22,053, Mississippi 56,780, Louisiana 81,627.* 
They graze with equal impunity the vegetation on the mai'gin of the 
Great Okefinokee Swamp (in Georgia and Florida) and on that which 
rankly flouiishes among the ooze at the mouths of the Mississippi. It may 
interest some less acquainted than you are, sir, with this subject, to know 
that in 1839 the county in which New-Orleans stands (Orleans) contained 
1,807 sheep; Jefferson, on the opposite side of the river, 6,871 ; St. Ber^ 
nard, extending from Orleans to the Gulf, 1,154 ; Plaquemine, almost sur- 
rounded by the waters of the Gulf, and comprising the delta of the Missis- 
sippi, 1,832 ; Lafourche Interior, on the Gulf, 1,253 ; TeiTebonne, another 
Gulf county, 1,013; St. Mary's, another, 8,211; and La Fayette, another, 
2,622.t 

No portion of the United States is lower, hotter, or more unhealthy, 
than much of the preceding, and none, according to commonly received 
notions, would be more unsuited to the healthy production of sheep. Yet, 
that they are healthy in these situations is a matter of pei-fect notoriety to 
all conversant with the facts. So far as health is concerned, then, we are 
assuredly authorized to assume the position that no portion of the United 
States is too warm for sheep. 

We come now to the effect of climate on the wool-producing qualities 
of the animal. Assuming the census returns of the United States in 1840 
as reliable data, they would furnish strong proof that the warmth of the 
climate has a marked effect in diminishing the weight of wool per sheep ; 
and they have been adduced as furnishing conclusive evidence to that ef- 
fect, by persons more accustomed to broad assertion than patient investi- 
gation. 

The following will give the weight of wool per head in the States enu- 
merated in Table No. 1, estimated from the census returns of 1840 : 



TABLE No. 2. 



Lbs. Oz. 

Virginia 1 7 845 

North Carolina 1 2 221 

South Carolina 1 3 539 

Georgia 1 4 487 

Florida 1 410 

New- York 



Lbs. Oz. 

Alabama 1 4 146 

Mississippi 1 4 227 

Louisiana 8 040 

Tennessee 1 4 809 

Kentucky 1 6 971 

1 lb. 7 680 oz. 



But an examination of the census will show that so far as several of 
these States are concerned, it is entitled to very little credit, in this par- 
ticular, and that it is correct in i-elation to none of them. 

In Louisiana, in fourteen counties from which 30,261 sheep, or nearly 
one-third in the whole State, are returned, not a pound of wool is returned. 

In Florida, four counties, retui-ning 228 sheep, return no wool. Let us 



U. S. Census, 1840. 



lb. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 19 

examine the comparative products, per head, as set forth in some of the 
counties from which returns of sheep and wool are both made, with a view 
of testing their accuracy. Escambia returns 485 sheep, and 837 lbs. of 
wool ; Walton 386 sheep, and 575 lbs. of wool ; Leon 1,798 sheep, and 
3,360 lbs. of wool — or an approximation to 2 lbs. of wool per head. Nas- 
sau returns 436 sheep, and 1,200 lbs. of wool, or about 3 lbs. per head. 
On the other hand, Gradsden returns 1,875 sheep, and 512 lbs. of wool ; 
Jefferson 752 sheep, and 300 lbs. of wool ; Madison 223 sheep, and 50 lbs. 
of wool; Jackson 960 sheep, and 376 lbs. of wool, or not quite a third of 
a pound per fleece ! Now Leon is bounded on the west by Gadsden, and 
on the east by Jefferson, and all lie in the same latitude, and do not differ 
essentially in their soil, herbage, or temperature ! Madison lies imme- 
diately east of Jefferson, (though its southern angle extends somewhat 
farther south,) and Jackson joins Walton, Nassau is in the same latitude. 
Hamilton, returning no sheep, returns the product as 20 lbs. of wool ! 

In Mississippi, eight counties returning 15,227 sheep, return no wool; 
and there are repeated instances of the same glaringly obvious errors that 
have been exhibited in the statistics of Florida. For example. Smith 
county returns 741 sheep, and 1,067 lbs. of wool; Wayne 921 sheep, and 
1,466 lbs. of wool. Jasper, bounding Smith on the east, returns 1,848 
sheep, and 418 lbs, of Wool; and Clarke, bounding Wayne on the north, 
1,199 sheep, and 188 lbs. of wool ! By this, the sheep of Clarke shear less 
than 3 oz. per head, while those of the next county shear over a pound 
and a half per head. There ai'e various other instances of under returas 
in the State. 

In Alabama, two counties returning 2,138 sheep, return no wool; and 
in eight counties there are the same glaring instances of under returns with 
those given above. 

In Georgia there is but one omission to return the wool, where the 
sheep are returned. In that county there were 3,360 sheep. There are 
eight or nine instances of obvious under returns, but these in the aggre- 
gate of the State are partly balanced by two gross cases of over returns, 
Cobb county returns 3,524 sheep, and 36,057 lbs. of wool ; and Richmond 
758 sheep, and 3,032 lbs. of wool ! 

In South Carolina there are at least six instances of under returns. 

In North Carolina there are no returns of wool in one county, contain- 
ing 2,163 sheep, and in another 7,260 lbs. of wool are returned, and no 
sheep. There are ten cases of obvious under returns. In one of them 
46,340 sheep are made to yield but 12,686 lbs. of wool. 

In Virginia there are no omissions, and no obvious under returns. There 
are several over returns. 

In Tennessee there are no omissions, but there are seven obvious undei 
returns and two or three over returns. 

In Kentucky and New-York there are not sufficient erroneous returns 
to materially vary the aggi-egate. 

The foregoing facts show that the Marshals in many counties in the 
most southern States entirely neglected their duty in returning the pro 
duct of wool ; and where over or under returns have been made, it is 
probable that, by a misapprehension of duty, the amount of wool on liand 
was ascertained and noted do^vn, instead of the annual clip. 

And there is another and general error in these statistics, throughout all 
the States, by the census including in the number of sheep the lambs of 
the current season, which had not, of course, been sheared at the time of 
taking the census. A, at the time of taking the census, owned a flock of 
200 sheep over one year old, and 100 lambs. He would give in his flock 



20 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



to the Marshal as 300, of course, for the census makes no distinction be- 
tween lambs and grown sheep. He gave in 600 lbs. of wool, which would 
be 3 lbs. per head for those which had been sheared. But by the lambs 
being included in the census returns, it is made to appear that his sheep 
sheared but 2 lbs. of wool per head. In the next census the lambs and 
sheep should be separately returned, not only to obtain accuracy, (without 
which such statistics are valueless,) but the annual increase thus indicated 
would be, of itself, an interesting and valuable statistic. 

In the preceding enumeration of erroneous returns, I have set down 
none as under returns where the product of wool has not been given as 
less than a pound per head ; and where it has fallen under that amount, 
the returns from contiguous counties, possessing the same natural features, 
exhibiting a far superior product,as well as the general complexion of the 
returns throughout the State, have authorized me beyond a reasonable 
doubt so to consider it. I may add, that it is a fact of universal notoriety 
that there is no variety of sheep in any section of the United States, whick 
shears but a pound of wool per head.* A careful inspection of the census, 
moreover, will not fail to satisfy any one that there are a multitude of under 
returns, (not specified by me, as the product is given over 1 lb. of wool per 
head,) in most of the States. This is shown by the same kind of compari- 
sons which have already been alluded to. These are far more common in 
the extreme Southern States, where wool gx'owing had not yet (in 1839) 
been reduced to any system, and where sheep had been little looked after 
or regarded. These errors grow less, as we approach the wool-growing 
regions of the north and north-west. 

Taking those returns which we are authorized to consider coiTect,t it 
will appear that there is no gi-eat difference in the average product of wool, 
per head, in States separated by fi'om ten to fifteen degrees of latitude, 
and no more than is clearly referable to incidental or extraneous caus.es, 
unless we come to the conclusion that the difference is in favor of the 
Southern States. In proof of this, the following table is offered, giving 
the products of some of those counties in each of the States enumerated 
in Tables No. 1 and No. 2, which exhibit the highest averages per head, 
(excluding those obviously over returned.)| 

TABLE No. 3. 



COUNTV. 

C Fauquier. . . 
J Hanison . - - 

] Ohio 

(^ Rockingham 

C Currituck . . 
J Person . — 
j Perquimans 
(^ Tyrrel 



Avtrage Weight of Wool 
per Sheep. 



Total average of 
the Counties given\\ 



Virginia 



North Carolina. 



Lbs. 
2 

2 
2 

9 



Oz. 
'^7 011 

fl-S-O-AiL 

"33 119 

9JLQj50_ 

'^2 6 (j H 9 

1 i-G-i 2. 

■^4791 



7iL4 3 
'459 

^^3027 
102292 
•^"2383 

8-O-fl- 

"19 4 7 



Lb3. Oz. 



2 U 



2 



* t consider such to be under returns, independent of the mistake made by including lambs in the 
enumeration, 

t With the exception of the error arising from the return of lambs— which perhaps would not greatly [ 
vary the proportionable result. r 

J It is proper to say that though I designed to tske the highest averages, I did not go through a formal < 
reckoning of the average in every county in the eleven States. I took those which appeared the highest, 
after a somewhat careful general inspection. 

II Excluding the fractions of the ounces in preceding column. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



21 



TABLE No. 3— (Continued.) 



State. County. 


Avtrage Wcigktof fVooL 
per Sheep. 


^'oia/ average of 
the Counties given. 


C Beaufort 

South Carolina J Darlington .... 

Lxeorgetown . . . 
/ Richland 


Lbs. Oz. 
9 19109 4 
'^ •'■'^13 75 
9 A 504 
'^ ^304T 

2 

1 191180 
^ ^-1311 


Lb». Oz. 

2 3 


r Bibb 


9 306 

9 133 
'^ ^49 


2 3i 


Georgia .J ^^""^^ 

° ] 1 wiggs 

^ Ware 


{ Escambia 

Florida . .--._--.'^ Leon 


1 11_9-L_ 

1 13|e 

2 13t¥9 


2 If 


^ Nassau 


{ Blount 

"• A 1 T_ J Jackson 

Alabama < . ^ 

Autauga 

(^ Greene 


1 15i-f 

2 6|f-H 

1 1 f^ 193 

9 02 608 
-^^ ^4 749 


2 1 


C Claiborne 

,,.... ! Hinds 

Mississippi i pg^y 

Warren 


9 72711 

'^ '6527 

3 

2 

9 7185 
•^ '95^ 


2 71- 


C Concordia 

T • • J St. Helena 


9 1^751 

1 71361 
^ 'T5T3 

2 Iff 
1 14i^ 


2 li 


" j St. Tammany . . 
(^ Washington . . . 


C De Kalb 

■ rn 1 Franklin 

^^^^^''^^ ^ Smith 

l^ Wilson 

r Bourbon 

^^"^'^^^y ] Liwrence '.W. '. 

Scott 


9 918 2 
-^ ^T29 
9 7617 9 

■^ ^'l309 
9 913 046 
'^ '^19309 


2 2f 


9 113897 
■^ -^23 719 
9 11 9133 
'^ -'-^20953 
9 1 02935 
"^ -^^6821 
9 f; 983 


2 7f 




r Westchester . . 

TLT -^r 1 Ulster 

J Saratoga 

l^ Orleans 


9 1 307 4 
-^ ■'■'^20043 

9 /^ f<95 
'^ "^ 6 3 5 5 
9 Q5 766 

9 942154 
"^ "^69563 


2 5 



Taking these averages as a test, it would appear that the difference 
between the average products of the Southern States and New York is, in 
some instances, in favor of the former. Kentucky in the middle, and Mis- 
sissippi in the extreme South, exceed the average of New York. 
It is proper to say, however, that various local circumstances may have 
I effected these results, and that taking the average of a considerable num- 
j ber of counties, in the several States, would essentially vary them. Not- 
' vdthstanding this, the testimony which they offer is important, and be- 
comes more so regarded in connection with another circumstance. The 
comparative statistics of the extreme Southern States themselves show 
that in a majority of cases their best products of wool come from their 
Southern and warmer counties. 

Of the four counties in Louisiana, the product of which is given above. 



22 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

the most northeni lies between the Slst and 32d degrees of latitude, and 
all of the other three south of latitude 31°. St. Tammany, which exhibits 
the second best product, borders on Lake Pontchai'train. The State ex- 
tends north to latitude 33°. 

In Florida, all the counties given lie in the same latitudes. 

Mississippi extends north to latitude 35°. All the counties given are 
south of 32° 30', and one in latitude 31°. 

In Alabama, extending north to the same latitude with the above, two 
of the counties given are in the northeni or mountain region, and two of 
them south of 33°. 

In G eorgia, (same northern line,) one of the counties given is in the ex- 
treme north, two south of 33° and one in latitude 31°, being the county 
in which lies the major portion of the Gi'eat Okefinokee Swamp ! 

In South Carolina, two of the counties (both bordering on the ocean) 
are in the low, marshy, tide-water region ; and the other two are in the 
central region. 

In North Carolina,two of the counties given join the ocean ; one is on Albe- 
marle Sound, while one lies in the central and northern portion of the State. 

In comparing the product of wool in the Southern States with that of 
the Northern — and more particularly with that of New-York — we must 
not lose sight of the fact that in the latter wool growing has become an 
important business, and is reduced to a system. The sheep are kept in 
pastures, and are sheared at regular intei-vals. In the Carolinas, Georgia, 
and the Gulf States, precisely the reverse of all this was generally ti'ue, 
at least up to the year 1839. The sheep were little cared for; were suf- 
fered to breed promiscuously ; and they roamed at large through forests, 
where, as the warm season advanced in the spring, their wool, beginning 
to detach itself, was left on shrubs and brambles, and in not rare instances 
considerable portions of it were thus lost prior to shearing.* 

Giving their due weight to the preceding facts, the defects in the census, 
etc., it is, I think, undeniable that they account for all the deficiency in 
the average product of wool per sheep in our most southern States, com- 
pared with that of New-York, as set forth in Table No. 2. Indeed, sir, 
my own convictions are decided, and the facts reported appear to fully 
sustain them, that warmth of temperature, at least to a point equaling the 
highest mean temperature in the United States, is not injurious, but abso- 
lutely conducive to the production of wool. The causes of this are in- 
volved in no mystery. Warm climates afford green and succulent herb- 
age during a gi'eater portion of the year than cold ones. Sheep plentifully 
supplied with green herbage keep in higher condition than when confined 
to that which is dry. High condition promotes those secretions which form 
wool. Every one at all conversant with sheep well knciws that if kept 
fleshy the year round, they produce far more wool than if kept poor. A 
half a pound's difference per head is readily made in this way. Within 
the maximum and minimum of the product of a sheep or a flock, the ra- 
tio of production always coincides with that of condition. 

I have dwelt on this point at gi-eat and perhaps tedious length, sir, as 
the results set forth in the United States Census, unexplained, would 
clearly point to a different conclusion from that to which I have arrived. 
To invalidate testimony, ostensibly so certain and reliable, as well as to 
combat deep-rooted prejudices, I hav6 deemed it necessary to scan thor- 
oughly the accessible facts in the case. 



* I make no nccount of differrnce in breeds, bs affeotinff the product of wool between the Fouth and 
North. The eradc Merinos, not uncommon in New-York, would produce Car more wool than the " na- 
lives," the principal sheep in the South iu 1839. But the latter would equal or exceed the product of the 
numerous Saxon flocks of New- York. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 23 



LETTER II. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE, CONTINUED. 



Kffect of Climate on quality of Wool... Wai-mth of Climate renders Wool coarser — Reasons ... Effect of 

Herbage. ..Opinions of Youatt — Doctor Parry — Englisii Stajjjers — Wnter...Can the tendency to grow 
coarser be resisted ?. . .Opinions of Youatt — Lasteyrie — Mr. Lawrence. ..Experiment in Australia— Cape of 
Good Hope — ^outh of Illinois — Kentucliy — Tennessee — Mississippi— New-York. . .Warm Climates render 
Wools softer and longer, ihus adding materially to their value. ..Proved to be the case in Australia. ..Tes- 
timony of English \Vool-factors and Staplers Same elfect produced in the United States Testimony 

of J\lr: Cockrill 

Dear Sir : We come now to discuss the effect of Climate on the quality 
of Wool. 

There can be but little doubt, other things being equal, that the pelage 
of the Sheep and some other animals, becomes finer in cold climates and 
coarser in warm ones. This is usually attributed, by theoretical writers, 
to the effect of cold and heat in contracting or expanding the pores. This 
may have some effect, but to suppose that the delicate tissues of the skin 
can act, to any great extent, mechanically, In compressing the harder and 
highly elastic ones of the hair or wool, or compel their attenuation so as 
to permit their escape through diminished apertures, like the process of 
wire drawing, is, it seems to me, to assume that matter acts contrary to 
its ordinary laws. I am rather disposed to look for the causes of this 
phenomenon, in the amount and quality of the nutriment received by the 
animal. It was stated. In my preceding letter, that warm climates, by 
affording succulent herbage during a greater portion of the year, maintain 
in gi-eater activity those secretions which form wool, and thus increase the 
quantity or weight of the fleece. The weight is Increased by increasing 
the length and thickness of the separate fibres, just as plants put forth 
longer and thicker stems on rich soils than on poor ones. 

Mr. Youatt, in his excellent and much quoted work on Sheep, after dis- 
cussing and admitting, to a certain extent, the influence of warm tempei-- 
atures in rendering wool coarser, says : 

'' Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. Tlv3 staple of the wool, 
like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has 
a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool 
must decrease like every other, when sufficient nottrishment is not afforded. AVhen little 
cold has been e.xperienced in the winter, and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the 
sheep yield an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as 
heavier. When frost has been severe and the ground long covered with snow — if the flock 
has been fairly supplied with nu'triment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight, 
it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness and a proportionate increase of valtie. 
Should, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved dtiring this prolongation of 
cold weather, the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner ; atid although it may have pre- 
served its emallness of filament, it has lost in weight and strength and usefulness. These 
are self-evident facts, and need not be enforced by any labored argument."* 

Doct. Parry, a correct and able English writer, remarks : 
" Sheep breeders have observed a sort of gross coiniection betw^een the food and qtiality 
of the fleece. . . . The fineness of a sheep's fleece of a given breed is, within certain 
limits, inversely as its fatness, and perhaps also (although I am not certain on this point) as 
the qtiickness with which it grows fat. A slieep which is fat has usually comparatively 
coarse wool, and one wliich is lean, either fi-om want of food or disease, has the fittest wool ; 
and the very same sheep may at different times, ac -ording to these circumstances, have 
fleeces of all the intermediate qualities from extreme fineness to comparative coarsenesa." 



♦ Youatt on Sheep, p. 70. 



24 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ] 

In an examination before the English House of Lords, in 1828, various 

eminent staplers* testify, most decidedly, to the deterioration (in fineness) ^ 

of the British wools and their increase in length of staple, " since the i 

introduction of artificial food and the adoption of the forcing system." | 

My own observations fully cori'oborate these positions. I have exam- ; 

ined, in repeated instances, with a good microscope, the wool of individ- .; 

ual sheep in my flock, taken in seasons when they have maintained a high \ 

condition, and in others, when, from some incidental cause they have been ] 
in ordinary or poor condition, and the difference in length and fineness is, 

uniformly, distinctly perceptible ! 

If the sheep breeder in warm climates can take advantage of the ten ■ 

dency to produce greater quantities of wool, following that supply of sue- , 
culent herbage throughout the year which Nature has placed at his disposal, 

and at the same time, by any unexpensive means which he can employ, ' 

combat the correlative tendency to increased coarseness of fibre, he has '-. 

most assuredly, other things being equal, an entire advantage over the •■ 
breeder in colder regions. 

We come now to the important inquiry. Can this latter tendency be J 

successfully combated ; or, in other words, can wool of any desirable i 

fineness be produced in countries as warm, for example, as Louisiana, ,1 
Mississippi, &c. 1 

Let us examine Mr. Youatt's testimony on this point also. He says : ! 

" Temperature aiid pasture have influence on the fineness of the fibre, and one whicli the ( 

farmer should never disregard ; but he may, in a great measure, counteract this influence by • 

carefiil management and selection in breeding. ... A better illustration of this cannot • 

be found than in the liict that the Merino has been ti-ansplanted to every latitude on the . 
temperate zone, and S(jme beyond it — to Sweden in the North and Australia in the South — 
and has retained its tendency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of neai'ly equal fineuesa 

and value.^'t , 

Mr. Lasteyrie, equally good authority, uses the following language. ; 

When he speaks of the preservation of the breed in its " utmost purity," ] 

we are undoubtedly to understand him to refer as much to the fineness of j 

the wool as any other point, this being the distinguishing mark or excel- i 

lence of the breed. J 

" The preservation of the Merino race in its utmost ])urity at the Cape of Good Hope, in ; 

the marshes of Holland, and under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional J 

STipport of this, my unalterable principle : fine wool sheep may be kept wherever inteUi ] 

gent breeders exist."t -| 

Samuel Lawrence, Esq. the head of the great Lowell Manufacturing 
Company, in Massachusetts, who, by his vast purchases of fine wool in all 

parts of the United States for a long term of years, and his intimate prac- \ 

tical acquaintance with the quality of the article, is entitled to have his ; 
opinion on this point regarded as of as great weight as that of any other 

individual, says : r" 

" That the properties of wool are affected by herbage and soil, I have not a doubt, and 

were it not invidious, I would name some sections where v^'ool gro^ver8 are greatly favored '. 

by Nature. One thiug is certain, whatever may be the character of the soil, where there ' 

axe good shepherds there is sure to bo found good wool. By judicious selections and cross- ■ 

ing, I beheve a breed may be reared wliich wiU give fom- pountls of exquisitely fine wool i 

to the fleece."|| ■< 

This last sentence of this important extract, thouq-h not bearing so par- J 

ticularly on the point under examination, is recorded in its original con- <. 

nection for subsequent reference. \ 

Australia and the Cape of Good Hope being cited by the distinguished 



* Youatt on Shoop, p. 71, where the names and testimony of these individuals are given ; and more at 
length ill Bischoff on Wools, &c., vol. ii. pp. 118—20(1. f Pp. 69—70. 

X Lasteyrie on Merino Sheep, p. lul. |1 Letter of Mr. L., published in " American Shepherd," p. 436. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



25 



English and French writers above quoted, as offering instances of the per- 
fectly successful acclimation of Merinos, without deterioration of their 
wool, in warm climates, it may be well to inquire a little more particularly 
what the climate of those countries is ; and what, if any, the other cir- 
cumstances connected with them, having an influence on the quality of 
the wools grown in them. 

Port Jackson, in Australia, in the vicinity of which the Merinos were 
first introduced, and are now extensively bred, lies in 33° 55' South lati- 
tude, corresponding as nearly with the latitude of Georgetown, South 
Carolina, as that of any othei important point in our country.* In de 
scribing this region (New South Wales) Make Brun says : 

" The coast itself is high but not mountainous ; and it is partly shaded by trees of gigantic 
size. Toward the south-east a great part is covered with coppice ; much also is occupied 
with marshes. About Botany Bayt the soil is black, rich and exceedingly productive in 
plants. The north-east part seems lower. The coast is covered with mangroves. . . . 
The heat of December rises to 112° Fahrenheit. The forests and the grass have been known 
spontaneously to take fire.t The North-west wind, like the Khamseen of Egypt, scorches 
the soil and reduces it to a light dust. . . . Notwithstandmg these disadvantages, the 
climate is very healthy, and very favorable to population. . . . Those parts in which 
different trials have been made have rather too warm a climate for common barley and oats, 
though these grains have been found to succeed tolerably well on the poorer soils. . 
All the vegetables grown in England are produced in the English colony. . . Peaches, 
apricots, nectarines, oranges, lemons, guavas, loquets, cherries, walnuts, almonds, grape* 
pears, pomegranates and melons attain the highest matmity in the open air."|| 

The counti-y, most of it, is remarkably deficient in water, § though many 
portions are subject to destructive inundations.^ Its drouths are unequaled 
for their duration and intensity in, perhaps, any inhabited portion of the 
globe.** Its vast plains, occasionally highly fertile, but more usually, only 
in detached spots, afford pasture throughout the year. 

The physical features of this country, its system of sheep husbandry, 
etc. will be more particularly alluded to hereafter. 

The English first introduced into this remote possession the coarse hairy 
sheep of Bengal. In the short space of three years these were so far 
changed by the effect of the climate and other circumstances, that their 
hair was entirely gone, and was succeeded by a fleece of wool.ft The 
South-Down and Leicesters were subsequently introduced, and their 
crosses with the Bengal sheep soon became as fine as the pure bloods of 
the former. At length some Merinos were imported by the colonists, 
and, says Mr. Youatt, " The experiment was satisfactory beyond their ex- 
pectation. The third or fourth cross with the then prevalent sheep of the 
colony produced an animal with a fleece equal to that of the pure Merino 
in Europe ; and the wool of the pure blood seemed to improve as rapidly 
as the native breed had done."|| In 1810, the export of wool from Aus- 
tralia and Van Dieman's Land was 167 lbs. ; in 1833, it had reached 
3,516,869 Ibs.llll In 1843, it amounted to 16,226,400 lbs.§§ 

The following, from a table in McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, 
will show the cun-ent prices (reduced to American currency) of some of 
the imported and domestic wools, in London, March, 1834 : 



$ CtS. $ Ct9. 

Spanish..,., per lb. — 60 to — 77 

Portuguese — 44 " — 62 

German. Saxon, &c — 48 " 1 1.5 

Australian — 50 " 1 00 



English : % cts. $ cts 

North & Soutb-Down. per lb. — 44 to — 48 

Leicester — 33 '• — 44 

Lincoln, Cotswold, Romney 

Marsh — 40 " — 44 



* Georgetown is perhaps half a degree nearer the Equator. 
t This place is twelve miles south of Port .Jackson. 

+ Malte Brun cites Collins (an author frequently quoted in relation to New South Wales) for this strona 
bdJ, perhaps, exaggerated assertion. || Make Brun, vol. i. pp. 600— 6U5. 

§ .Spooner, Youatt, etc. IT Malfe Brun. ** See McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, 

ft Youatt on .-^heep, p 184. Spooner, Diseases of Sheep, p. 63. 

tJ lb. p. 184. III! lb. et Spooner. §§ Spooner. 

1659) D 



26 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



\ 



It will be seen from this, that the best Australian wools ah'eady excelled 
the best Spanish, and were more than midway between them and the best 
Saxon. When we consider the almost infinite difference in the care, both 
in breeding and management, bestowed on the Saxon and Australian sheep, ;' 
it shows most conclusively the adaptation of the climate of Australia to t 
the production of the finest wool — or, at least, that the adverse effects of | 
its warm temperature, and the incidents to that temperature, are easily : 
(overcome. IisJSaxony, sheep are numbered, oftentimes their separate ped- ] 
igrees registered, and each breeding ewe is stinted to a ram carefully se- i 
lected with reference to her individual qualities. In Australia, where less >■ 
( ajjital and labor are e*nployed, flocks of about three hundred breeding 
ewes* — where the country is destitute of timber, sometimes a thousandl — I 
loam from one fertile and watered spot to another over the vast plains, in •, 
( harge of the convict shepherd ; and this system is followed throughout 
the year, includhig the tupping season. Three flocks are always penned 
together at night,| so that as many as nine hundred breeding ev\es, of va- 
rying quality, must be promiscuously bred to, say, fi-om thirty to thirty-five 
lams, running promiscuously among them. 

The Cape of Good Hope is in south latitude 34^ 23' 40". 

Mr. Youatt, in describing the sheep husbandry of this region, overesti- i 
mated, I think, the heat of the climate. Separated by lofty mountain 
ranges from the interior of Africa, the fertile regions adjoining the coast 
are not swept by its scorching winds, and the t empcrature is comparcilively 
mild. " In a meteorological register kept at Cape Town, from Sept. 1818 
to Sept. 1821, embracing a period of tluee yeai's, the highest heat marked 
is 96'^, the lowest 45°, Fahrenheit. The mean and annual temperature 
scarcely 68° — of winter 61°, of summer 89°. "|| But sheep and their wool 
suffer from the fine sands which are lifted and driven by tlie prevailing 
winds. Says Make Brun, " the wind blows often fj-om the south-east with 
great violence. Nothing can be secured from the sands which it drives 
before it ; they penetrate the closest apartments and the best-closed trunks. 
At this time it is not prudent to go out without glasses, lest the eyes should 
be injured."§ 

Though the climate can scarcely be designated a "torrid" one, as Mr. 
Youatt speaks of it, the mean temperature of its winter (61°) conclusively 
shows that cold can have nothing to do here with rendering the wool finer ^ 
by a contraction of the pores. If, therefore, it can be shown that the wool i 
of the fine breeds does not deteriorate in quality, it sufliciently proves that' 
Australia is not an incidental exception in the testimony which it presents _ 
on the point under examination, but that it illustrates the uniform opera- • 
tion of the physical laws which pertain to the growth of wool. i 

After one or two unsuccessful attempts, the Merinos were acclimated' 
at the Cape by the English colonists. In ISOi, the colony numbered 536.- ' 
634 sheep. In 1811, there were 1,293,740. In 1810, the import of wool 
into Great Britain was 29,717 lbs.; in 1833, it was 93,325 Ibs.lf i 

In Willmcr & Smith's " Liverpool Annual Wool Repoit," for 184G, it^ 
is stated, " The shipments from this (juarter (Cape of Good Hope) sliowl 
great improvement, amply testified by the high rates the best flocks have 
commanded during the season. . . The best parcels now take rank'' 
with those from Australia."** The system of ln-eo<ling and general rnan-> 
ao^ement at the Cape closely correspoiid with those of Australia. ] 

Let us now, sir, turn to the experience of our own country. I do not' 

* Cnnninstiam'a -'Two Yfiiis ill Soulh Walp.5." t H). t lb. 

II MhIu: Bniii, vol. ii. ]). 11'2. v^ 111, vol. ii p. 110. 

II Vouati on Sliucp, p. 18-1. ** Willuior >!k; j-iiiiih's Kuropcan Times of Jan. '1, IS'16. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 27 

know that a sufficient number of experiments have been made as near the 
Equator as Cape Town and Port Jackson, to have their testimony regard- 
ed as entirely decisive on the point under consideration, but those have 
been made which throw much Hght on this question, if, indeed, any more 
is considered necessary. In the south of llUnois (Edwards county), in 
about latitude 38° 30', the finest varieties of sheep were introduced by 
Mr. George Flower, about twenty years since, from which he has bred up 
an extensive flock. That gentleman says :* " No deterioration in the wool 
has taken place ; on the contrary, the wool fibre is somewhat finer." I 
have myself seen various specimens of Mr. Flower's avooI, of the clip of 
1844, and it bore an excellent character for fineness and evenness. 

In a letter which I received from Hon. Henry Clay, in 1839, he says : 
" I have for some years had only the pure Saxony at my residence ; but I 
am now satisfied that I should have derived more profit from sheep pro- 
ducing a wool less fine.f The climate of Kentucky is, however, well 
adapted to the Saxon sheep." Mr. Clay's residence is in about latitude 38°. 

Mr. Mark R. Cockrill, of Nashville, Tennessee, in a letter published in 
the American Shepherd,^ says : 

" I have about a thousand head of fine sheep, and fiom 400 to 500 loncf-wooled or mutton 
sheep. IMv Saxon sheep were imp(n-ted in 1824 or '26 — I caimot say which — and I find as 
yet no falhng off in qumitity or quality of their fleeces ; on the contrary, I beheve a little 
improvement on both points, and a little more yolk, when well provided for, which, you 
know, does not abound much in the Saxon breed. In addition, the fleeces are a little more 
compact than formerly — hence more weight ; and, from our mild climate, the staple has be- 
come longer. . . I assert it to be a fact that the cotton region I am now in [Mr. Cockrill 
dates from Madison county, Mississipjii, where a part of his sheep are kept], in about lati- 
tude 32° north, is better than any countiy noith of it to grow wool, as the sheep can be kept 
all the time grazing, by sowing small giain ; f )r, if gi-azed oft', it quickly grows again in a 
few days ; and the wool of the fine Saxon sheep in this climate is softer and more cotton-like 
than any I have ever seen, althou£;h I have samples fi-om all parts of the world. I have 
traveled from this very place to Boston, sampiing all the sheep of note on the way, and I 
found nothing on my journey or at Boston as good as the wool I had grown, and so said all 
the wool staplers whom I met with, and they were not a few. I presumed, in reality, that 
tlie blootl of my sheep was no better than many I saw, but the supenority of my wool I as- 
cribed to our climate, and the provision for the sheep of succulent food the year round. — 
The weight of my fleeces is fair — say from 3 to .5| lbs. each. . . Tennessee is not the ti'ue 

frass climate ; about 28° north is the most congenial for gi-ass : notwithstanding, our State is 
ilr for piisture ; blue and orchard grass, white and red clover, prosper jiretty well. . . 
There is much country in Tennessee and other Southern States not fit for the plow, and 
would do admirably well for fine-wooled sheep, and can be profitably so employed. A small 
capital thus appropriated here iu Mississippi would do better than cotton gi'owiug at present 
prices." 

Nashville is in about latitude 37° 15' ; and Madison county, Mississijjpi, 
is about half a degree farther north than mentioned by Mr. Coekrill, viz. 
extending from 32^° to 33°; its county seat (Canton) being more'than a 
degree nearer the Equator than Port Jackson in Australia, and about two 
degrees nearer than the Cape of Good Hope ! 

Mr. Morrel, the compiler of the " American Shepherd," has obtained 
specimens of Mr. Cockrill's wool, and he says of them, " Judging from the 
samples, the conclusion is inevitable that little or no deterioration has been 
produced by the climate. "|| 

This testimony of Mr. Cockrill is very important, both from the length 
and extent of the experiment. I have no doubt of the perfect correctness 
of his assertion that his wool has improved in those low latitudes ; but the 
cause assigned by him cannot be received as the correct one, so far as the 
increased fineness of the fibre is concerned. The improvement in this par- 
ticular, under a system of feeding which has " increased" both the " quan- 

* In a letter published in the Px'airie Farmer. t Mr. Clav here alludes to the Merinos. 
i p. 409. II Amoricau Shepherd, p. 41. 



28 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

tity" and the " yolk" of the fleece, cannot be ascribed to the climate, nor 
to the feeding itself. It is undoubtedly owing to Mr. C.'s system of breed- 
ing and selection, a point which will be fully discussed hereafter. 

If feed or condition exercise the principal influence on the fineness of 
wool (that is, A\atliin the range of variation to which it is subject on the 
same individuals), it follows that the effect may be produced in any climate, 
for high condition throughout the year is attainable in the most rigorous 
ones, by the supjdy of plentiful and rich food. The wool secretions are 
incident on condition — fatness, however superinduced.* It again follows 
that if wool of the highest degree of fineness (for the breed) can be pro- 
duced in New- York, although the sheep is kept in a decidedly fat state 
throughout the year — quite as fat as it would become, grazing on gi'een 
feed all the year round — that wool of equal fineness can be produced by 
the observance of the same influencing conditions (apart from feed) by the 
southern breeder. 

Here again, undeterred by any considerations of what I deem a false 
modesty, I shall offer facts founded on my own personal experience as a 
sheep breeder ; and I would remark, once for all, that throughout the 
whole of these letters I shall never so far prefer beliefs founded on the as- 
sertions of others, to actual knowledge, based on facts repeatedly and con- 
stantly brought under my personal inspection, for a number of years, as 
to suppress the latter, to rely solely on the former. 

I have succeeded, in repeated instances, in producing an exquisite qual- 
ity of wool, decidedly above the average of the breed (Merino) in the 
heavy fleeces of sheep kept fat the year round. I have made it a sort of 
a test latterly, in the selection of rams, to choose only those which not 
only carry heavy fleeces, in any condition, but which, in the highest, yield 
a wool equaling the choicest samples to be found on this variety. These 
facts will, by and by, be placed in a definite and tangible form, by the re- 
corded testimony of the scales and the microscope. 

But though the natural effects of warm climates and their incidents, to 
increase the bulk or coarseness of the fibre, is one which can easily be re- 
sisted, they work a change of another kind in the character of wool. They 
cause a longer fibre and a greater softness of staple. The effect of succu- 
lent nutriment during the year in increasing the amount of the wool will 
exhibit itself; but the skill of the breeder can so far regulate its action, 
that the increase is in the length, rather than in the diameter or bulk of the 
fibres. It is not difficult to conjecture why a staple of more rapid growth, 
supplied to excess with the secretions which enter into its composition, un- 
exposed tf) great and rapid variations of temperature, should retain a 
gieater'degree of softness than one produced under opposite conditions. 
But, wliatever the causes of these phenomena, theii* existence is placed 
beyond a doubt. 

The increased Icnstli of staple, resulting from the nutriment of warni 
climates, has been sufficiently adverted to. The following statements made 
by some of the most eminent wool-factors, staplers, etc. in England, before 
a Committee of the House of Lords, in 1828, place the other point beyond 
controversy.t 

Mr. Henry Hughes, wool-broker, London, says : 



* No one has a.=sertP(l, eo far as I am informed, that <1ry feod will produce less wool than p:reen feed, if 
the same doiri-ee of falTiess is kept up. On the other hand, tlie ricli cereal grains, oil-cake, &c. (without 
8ome of which a hish decree of fatness cannot be maintained, on dry feed alone, during the four or live 
months' winter in latitudes noxtb of 42'^), might be supposed to be quite as conducive to the production of 
wool as glasses. 

t For extended minutes of this very interesting investigation into the state of the wool-trade, &c. &c. in 
Great Britain, see Bifichofl' on Wool, &c., vol. ii. p. 118 to 200. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 29 

" I.iitterly they (Austi'alian and Van Dieman's Land wools) have been of varied qualities, 
but all possessing an extraordinaiy softness, which the nianufactxu-ers here so much admiie 
that they are sought tor more than any otiier description of wools, from that peculiar qusility, 
which is supposed to arise from the climate alone. They are known to require less of the 
milhng or I'ulUng power than any other descriptions of wools. . . They are better adapted 
than the German wools to mix with British wools, because the superior softness which J. 
have stated gives a chai'acter, when mixed with English wool, that the other does not, from 
the hai-dness of the fibre."* 

Mr. Stewart Donaldson, merchant, London, says : 

" I have no hesitation in pronoiuicing that the wools of New South Wales and Van Die- 
maji's Land are decidedly prefeired to the appai'ently similar descriptions of German wool. 
. . . They have a softness and silkuiess about them which, when worked up uito cloth, 
Bhows itself more distinctly than ui the raw material. I conceive that it is dependent on the 
climate alone. I am of opinion that wool of that quality could not be produced in miy part 
of Europe."! 

Mr. Thomas Legg, wool-stapler, Bermondsey, says : 

" There ai'e some of these wools of very beautiful quality, as good as any of the German 
wools."}: 

Mr. Thomas Ebsworth, wool-broker, London, says : 

" The pecuharity of the climate of New South Wales appears to have a very great effect 
on wool, so as to reduce it fi'om a harslniess to a veiy fine textiu-e."|| 

This was the substance of all the testimony on this particular point; 
and when it is understood that the investigation was an issue between rival 
interests, where all the facts were thoroughly sifted, the fact that the above 
assertions were undisputed shows that they were considered of an undis- 
putable character. 

Allusion has already been made to the loose and careless system of 
sheep-breeding, etc. in Australia, compared with that in Germany. Tak- 
ing this into consideration ; taking also into consideration that the flock 
furnishing the best wool in Australia (Capt. McArthur's) is composed of 
grade eheep (Bengal and English, graded up with Merino and Saxon rams), 
the trifling effect of climate is made more strikingly to appear. 

The statements of Mr. Cockrill in relation to the softness of the wools 
gi'own in Tennessee and Mississippi, sustain and are sustained by those 
above given ; and they go to show that it is the result of a general law 
and not of any peculiar local influences peculiar to Australia 

• Bischoff on Wool, &o. vol. ii. pp. 182-3. t Ibid. 183-4. % Ibid. 184. |I Ibid. 184. 



30 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER III. 

ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OF THE SOUTHERN STATES TO 
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 1. OF THE LOW OR TIDE-WATER REGION. 



Katural Features of the Southern States— Divided into three Zones... The Natural Features, Soils, &c. of 
each... The Tide-water Zone— Its destitution of Artificial Pastures and Meadows. ..Causes— Small amount 
of Domestic Stock kept — Unsuccessful Experiments in raising Clover and Grasses. ..Reasons why those 
Experiments were unsuccessful — Laud too much Exliausted by Severe Tillage — System of Tillai^e com- 
pai-ed with that of the Grazing Regions of New-York— Kxperiments unsuccessful, also, because improper 
varieties of Clover and Grass were tried. ..Much of the Land adapted to Grass— Sliown by its Natural Pas- 
tures — Statements of Col. Allston — Opinions of Mr. Rutiin— of a Committee of the S. C. Agricultural Soci- 
ety. . . Land compared witli that of Flanders— also with some parts of New.York. . . Climate perhaps unfa- 
vorable to certain Northern Grasses and to Red Clover — Opinion of Mr. Rutiin — Statements of Milton (S. 
C.) Agricultural Society. ..Clover not indispensable. ..Experiments suggested. ..Valuable indigenous and 
acclimated Grasses— Crab Grass — .Millet— Bermuda Grass— its great value— Statements of Mr. Affleck... 
Peas — Their great value in the Southern States as a Green Crop Manure — Sprengel's Analysis of them — 
The Value of their Straw as a Manure compared witli various substances — Table of the Value of Manures 
by Payea and Boussmgault... Oats, Rye and Barley — Corn Blades — Sweet Potatoes. ..Conclusions frona 
foregoing. ' 

Dear Sir : Having discussed, in my previous letters, the effects of warm 
climates and some of their incidents, on the health of sheep, and on the 
quantity and quality of their wool, we come now to the second branch of 
my original inquiry — Is there anything in the natural features, soils, herb- 
age, &c. of the Southern States, which unfits them for a natural and easy 
adaptation to sheep husbandry ? 

The vast region south of the Ohio and Potomac, and west of the Missis- 
sippi — comprising an area considerably exceeding that of France, Spain 
and Portugal* — is distinguished, by its natural features, into three distinct 
zones, parallel to each other and to the Atlantic coast. 

The lower or tide-water zone, which skills the Atlantic, is a low, flat, 
sandy, and oftentimes mai'shy plain, from 50 to 100 miles wide, compara- 
tivelv recent (tertiary) in its formation, and covered with pine forests ovej; i 
the greatest portion of its extent. The soils on the dry lands are generally 
light, and sometimes too sterile to admit of profitable cultivation ; that in 
the swamps and river bottoms, where the sand is i-eplaced by a rich allu- 
vion, is exceedingly fertile. The middle or hilly zone rises from the level i 
of the preceding, first into gentle hills, and finally into high and oftentimes < 
broken ground, as it approaches the mountains. The width of this does ' 
not greatly vary from that of the preceding. The formation is almost ex- ' 
clusively primary ;t and the soil vai'ies, sometimes being poor, but more ' 
generally ranging, in its natural state, from medium to highly fertile. The ': 
forests consist of oak and other deciduous trees. The third or mountain •' 
region is formed by the different chains and groups of the great Apalach- 
ian range of mountains, and occupies not far from 70,000 square miles of 
the central portion of the territory under consideration.! It comprises the s 
middle of Virginia, the west of North Carolina and South Carolina, the 
north of Georgia and Alabama, and the east of Tennessee and Kentucky, f 
Its formation on the eastern declivities of the Blue Ridge (the most east- i: 
ern chain) is primary, and thence to the Alleganies the rocks belong to - 

* Spain contains 170,000 square miles, Portugal 40,000, France 200,000— in all 410,000. Allowing 10,000 
square miles of Loviisiana to be east of the Mississippi, the area of the region referred to is 456,000 square 
miles. 

t There are one or two interrupted belts of new red sandstone — vide McCIure. V 

J Estimated not far, I think, from correctly, by myself. I can find no authority on this point. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 31 

the Transition order.* Its soil varies from thin and h"ght to that of exu- 
berant fertihty. West of the mountains, the hilly zone rests on Transition 
j rocks and coal measures, and is succeeded west and south of Viro-inia by 
the vast rolling or level plains which extend to the Ohio and Mississippi ; 
and which, instead of the silicious sands of the eastern coast, exhibit rich 
and varying soils resting on limestone and other Transition and Cretaceous 
rocks. In Virginia, the hilly region, which is one vast coal measure, extends 
to the bottom lands of the Ohio ; and its soils, taken as a whole, range from 
ordinary to meager.t 

We will now proceed to examine the capabilities and adaptation of each 
2one, separately, for the purposes of sheep husbandry. It has already been 
shown that sheep are heiMthy. and produce as heavy, and may he made to 
produce as fine fleeces as elsewhere, in the tide-water zone. They are 
easily kept — finding, in a climate so mild, considerable succulent food even 
in the winter; and, south of North Carolina, large numbers would subsist 
during the entire winter on the hardier wild herbage which continues gi'een 
in the forests and swamps. If this region was stocked with sheep, to the 
extent alone to which they could find subsistence, summer and winter, on 
wild herbage — or, in other words, get a living without costing their own- 
ers anything — the present number would be largely increased, and their 
wool and mutton would add materially to the annual income of the own- 
ers of the soil. But a better system would undoubtedly be not to depend 
upon wild herbage alone, but to have pastures or sheep-walks seeded with 
the best grasses which will flourish on them, and provision made for a quan- 
tity of dry fodder, or some substitute for it, for winter use. 

Can this summer and winter feed, be produced, in the region under ex- 
amination, to any considerable extent, at an expense which would render 
its conversion into wool and mutton profitable % There are patches of 
good natural pasture in many parts of the tide- water zone, apart from the 
salt or fresh water marshes. But artificial pastures and meadows have 
rarely been attempted. The planters in this portion of South Carolina, for 
example, actually import hay ! " Many of the cotton and rice planters . 
. . in some cases buy hay from New-England. . , . Northern and 
(in some cases) European hay is even carried up to supply Augusta 'and 
Columbia, along rivers which flow through swamps covered with natural 
grass, so rank and luxuriant as to be almost impenetrable."! 

This neglect of grass culture springs from several causes. Little farm- 
stock, comparatively speaking, is reared or kept by the rice and cotton- 
planters, from the fact that most of the labor on such plantations is per- 
formed by men ; and the few animals kept are fed on wild herbage, or the 
offal of crops which are raised for other purposes. The carnage and 
draught horses and mules are fed in the winter on the leaves or " blades " 
of corn ; and the neat stock get their living in the swamps, and in the 
corn fields, where the greatest portion of the stalks are usually left stand- 
ing- 

Nor is it to be denied that various unsuccessful experiments have been 
made in the cultivation of the grasses and clover, which have discouraged 
farther efforts, and led many to infer that the soil or climate, or both, are 
decidedly uncongenial to them. That the soil or climate is as favorable to 
the production of rich, thick swarded pastures or meadows, as in many 

* So termed by Wemer. Though little used now by genlodsts, I resort to it as the shortest descriptive 
epithet which will include all these'rocks, unless it be the Hemilisyan of Brongniart, the Sulimedial of Co- 
nybeare, or the Graywacke of De la Beche — neither of which is so familiar, nor, it appears to me, any bet- 
ter. The Transition rocks are equivalent to both the Camlirian of Prof. Sedgwick, and the Silurian of Mr. 
Murchison — whose nomenclature is adopted by Lyell, Phillips, Mantell, &c. 

t Dr. Morse, Mitchell, «fec. ^^ % RufOa's Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, 1843, p. 73 



32 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

parts of the Northern States, I do not contend. Some of these soils are 
doubtless, naturally too barren to be made to produce good yields of grass, 
without an expenditure which would more than counterbalance the profits 
accruing from them. Others have been sunk nearly to the same level by i 
wasting and improvident tillage ; and it is on lands of the latter class, jj 
mainly, that the experiments in introducing the grasses and clover have | 
been made. As long as they would produce cotton or corn, these crops 
were annually taken from them, with perhaps an occasional year of rest 
(i. e. lying without any crop being sown on or taken from them) ; and, 
when reduced to such a degree of bairenness that the crop fell short of re- 
paying the cost of producing it, clover or grass was resorted to in the vain 
hope of suddenly repairing, through their instrumentality, the ravage and 
desolation of years. The following is from the report of a Committee of 
the Fishing Creek Agricultui-al Society, Chester District, South Carolina, 
made to the President of the State Society in 1843 ; and, though this dis- 
trict is not in the tide-water zone, the system of cropping described is more 
or less the prevailing one* throughout much of the cotton growing region : 
" We generally plaut cotton on fresh land four or five years in succession — then com — 
then wheat or oats — again corn and cotton ; and, after it will produce little else, we sow it 
in rye, and let it rest two or three years. There are no fixed principles observed in the ro- 'i 
tation of crops. . . . We have no data whereby to fix the expense of cultivation accu- 
rately. AVe know this, however, that at the price of produce for the last two or three years, 
we are shiking money. "t 

I ask what would be expected, in the way of grass or clover, from some 
of the best grazing lands of New- York, after being cropped with grain 
crops from ten to twelve years consecutively, with little or no manure 1 — ji 
However carefully seeded with the best grasses, or with clover, they would f j 
not form meadows worth mowing, nor pastures where an acre would sum- i 
mer a sheep — though, as now managed, an acre is poorly grassed that will ' 
not summer five or six sheep. Take the map of New-York, Sir, and draw i 
a right line from Buffalo to a point a little south of Albany — say Coxsackie i 
— and all tlie region, speaking in general terms, south of this line and west ! 
of the Catskill Mountains, is mainly devoted to grazing. It is the best I 
graaing region of the State, and -much of it is equal to any in the Northern | 
States. The best farmers in no part of it take off to exceed three grain or 
root crops before seeding down to grass ; and, unless the soil is unusually 
rich, it is customary to give barn-yard manure to one of these crops. This 
is almost invariably the case where the land was in meadow when broken 
up. Where no manure is given on meadow lands, or even on lightish pas- iii 
ture lands, two grain crops are considered sufficient by the most provident 
farmers — it being an axiom among such, that all ordinary or thinnish soils 
should be nearly or quite as rich when seeded down as when broken up. 
In other words, they draw from the soil only what is equivalent to the [ 
strength or fertilizing properties of the sod, and of the manure given. — ? 
When seeded down to grass, these lands are usually depastured by cattle ] 
or sheep several years before they are again broken up. If converted into ] 
meadow, they are top-dressed from time to time with gypsum, and some- 
times with stable manures.| The poorest soils, rocky hill-stdes, declivities 
much subject to washing and gullying, are rarely broken up after being 'i 
once properly seeded down. I repeat it. Sir — take all the grazing lands 
of New-York, and crop them as severely as it is reported above to be done ^ 
in Chester District, South Carolina, and they would become so sterile that, ii 



* Id est, so far as constant cropping without returning anything to the soil is concerned, 
t See Ruffin's Agricultural Survey of .^outh Carolina, 184:3— Appendix, p. 6. 

j [t IS not considered good economy, however, to top-dress any meadows with stable manures which 
ere dry and arable, and can thus be subjected to the regular rotations of the farm. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 33 

unless resuscitated by copious applications of manure, they would not 
yield grass enough to pay the exp'iense of keeping them under fence, until 
they had lain waste for a quarter of a century. 

Another cause of the failures which have attended some of the efforts to 
introduce the culture of clover and the grasses on the tide-water zone, in 
the Southern States, may, and probably has, existed in the improper selec- 
tion of the varieties sown. As the first crop on a very meager soil — red 
clover, for example — is not appropriate in any region. In Flanders, the 
natural soils of much of which so closely resemble those of the zone under 
examination, it js not sown until the land is enriched and got in condition 
by several preparatory crops. The different grasses seem to be affected 
by various conditions in the soil or atmosphere, or both, which it is fre- 
quently difficult or impossible to detect. Timothy grass (Phleum pratcnse) 
is decidedly the favorite meadow gi'ass of the grazing regions of New- 
York. White clover (Trifolium repensj invariably comes up spontane- 
ously on those lands. Red clover ( T. pratense) is sometimes sown with 
Timothy in meadows, and generally in pastures. Red Top* ( Agrostis 
(strictaj vulgaris) is prefened on wet lands, where it comes up spontane- 
ously. It is considered a prime pasture and meadow grass in such situa- 
tions. June or Spear grass ( Poa pratcnsis), the Blue grass of the South 
ern and Western States, so piized there and also in England,! is consid- 
ered an unprofitable intruder in our meadows, where it comes up sponta- 
neously, and ultimately drives out the Timothy. The meadows are then 
said to be " run out," and are broken up. I have never known the seed 
of this grass sown in a single instance ! The favorite Rye grasses of Eng- 
la? ^ ( Lolium perenne var. bienne), Lucern (Medicago sativa), Sainfoin 
(Ji edysarum onibricMs), Orchard grass ( Dactylis glomerata), and various 
oli lers equally celebrated in England and on the Continent, have been 
tried in New- York, and the experiments are generally regarded as decided 
failures. None of them, at all events, have obtained a footing among the 
grasses sown by our best farmers. On the other hand, the Red Top of 
New- York is but little regarded in England, | and Timothy was not in 
much better repute until the Woburn experiments demonstrated its gieat 
value for hay. Even now it is considered inferior, in general value, to 
many other grasses.] [ All this goes to show that even the hardiest grasses 
have their favorite situations ; and that we are not authorized to pronounce 
against the practicability of forming pastures and meadows in a given re- 
gion, because we have failed in a trial with two or three glasses, out of a 
list of as many hundreds. 

It has already been remarked that there are patches of good natural 
pasture on the dry as well as the wet portions of the tide-water zone. 
These are frequent and extensive, and could be rendered infinitely more 
so by simply clearing the land. In your Memoir on the Cultivation of 
' Rice, furnished to Mr. Ruffin, while making the Agi'icultural Survey of 
South Carolina, in 1843, you say : 

" At first, rice was cultivated on the high land, and on little spots of low ground, as they 
! were met with here and there. These low grounds being found to agree better with the 
I plant, the inland swamps were cleared for the purpose of extending the culture. In the 
I process of time, as the fields became too gi-assy and stubborn, they were abandoned for new 
clearings ; and so on, until at length was discovered the superior adaptation of the tide-lands, 
' aiid the great facilities for irrigation afforded by their location. For these, the inland planta- 
i tions were gradually and slowly abandoned, until now, that the gi-eat body of land, which 

* Sometimes known as " Upright Bent grass." and in the Southern States as Herds-grass. 
t Pronounced by Sole the best of all the grasses. 

i Agrostis rmlgaris is proBounced " a worthless or rather a mischievous plant," by Sir George Sinclair ! 
"Our opinion," says Loudon, "is that neither Timothy nor (some other grasses named) is ever likely 
to be cultivated in Britaia." 



34 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

little more than a contiiry ago furnished for exportation over 50,000 bmrels of rice, now lies 
utterly w;iste, constituting, where trees have not overgi'own it, tlie finest natural pasture 
which could be desired."* 

Mr. Ruffin in his Report of the Suryey, of the same year, asserts : 

" Few countries possess greater natural facilities, or which are more improvable by in- I 
dustry, for producing in abuiidauce, gra&s. hay and live-stock, and their products of meat, ' 
milk and butter, all of which ai'e now so deplorably deficient."! 

The Committee appointed by the State Agricultural Society of South | 
Carolina to take into consideration the scheme of reducing the quantity I 
of cotton grown,| in their Report observe : J 

" Millions of acres in South Carolina, including the lower country, are admirably adapted \ 

to the raising of rich gi-asses. This might be added as another branch of industry, from ( 

which reasonable profits could be realized, and might very well be added to the cotton I 

planter's income." I 

Corresponding statements, on equally indisputable authority, might be j 
indefinitely multiplied, not only in relation to that portion of the tide- » 
water zone lying within the limits of South Carolina, but in all the South- \ 
em States. South Carolina occupying a central geographical and lati- 
tudinal position, in reference to this zone, and its soils on it, about 
averaging, so far as I can learn, with that of the other States, it is not 
necessary to pursue the inquiry. 

Where fiiie natural pastures spring tip spontaneously on deserted lands, 
more or less impoverished — prolsably in most instances considerably so — 
how little difficulty would there be in forming, almost immediately, the 
best artificial pastures and meadows on millions of acres of just such land, 
(only that it is in its virgin state, and consequently far better,) now in un- ^ 
productive forest ! And how small would be the amount of skill requisite ' 
to convert millions of acres more of cotton lands — which do not now yield 
remunerat'mg crops — into pastures and meadows, which, as I shall show, : 
would yield their owners a handsome remuneration ! 

And the culture of the grasses need not stop with these comparatively i 
good and medium lands. They can be made to stretch their carpet of 1 
green over the poorest of yotir sands — over those now covered with stimt- 
ed pines, or which, scorched and naked, reverberate back fiercely the 
burning heat of a southern sky. 

There are few regions in the tide-water zone possessing poorer soils 
than some cultivated portions of New-York. In the vicinity of Albany, 
(between that city and Schenectady, for example,) the same loose, silicious 
sands, the same, though perhaps rather more stunted, growth of pines, 
would almost compel you to fancy yourself somewhere between Richmond 
and Wilmington, on the route of the great Southern Railroad! Denuded 
of their meager covering of dwarf pines, and the cohesion produced by <''. 
their interlacing roots, these sands would be lifted and driven about by i 
the winds. Yet on such a soil as this, yoti find the farm of the late cele- ■• 
brated Jesse Buel ! And fertile grass fields, dotted here and there with \ [i 
splendid mansions, are every year stretching out farther and farther among 
the arid sands. How are these rapid transformations in the fertility of ' 
the soil accomplished ] The stables, and mews, and cesspools of Albany 
can give the answer ! 

The following description of the natural soils of Flanders, now prover- 
bial for its fine crops and rich pastures and meadows, is fi-om the pen of 
that able English agricultural writer. Rev, W. L. Rham : 



* AiTiculturfrt Purvey of South Carolina, 1843. Appendix, p. 14. t lb. p. 73. 

X Tlie Committee consisted of Whitemarsh B. Seabrook, Esq., John B. O'Neall, Esq., and W. J. Allston 
Ebq.— and the Report was made, I believe, in January, in 1846. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 35 

" The greater part of the laud in Flanders is naturally poor ; and in extensive districts, 
■wliich now have the appearance of the gieatest richness at harvest time, the original soil was 
once little better than the blowing sands which are met with in the neighborhood of the sea. 
Neither is it a genial climate which brings forward the fruits of the earth in abundance ; for 
the climate is mferior to that of France or the southern parts of Germany. The soil may be 
divided ijito two classes. The first consists of the alluvial clay loams near the coast ; the 
second, of various sands and light loams which are ibmid in the interior. The most fertile is 
that of the low lands which have been reclaimed iiom the sea by embankments ; it is chiefly 
composed of a muddy deposit mixed with fragments of marine shells and fine sea sand .... 
In tlie interior of East and West Flanders the soil varies considerably ; but the principal 
part is of a sandy natin-e. The sand, and a heavier loam which scarcely deserves the name 
of clay, are found much intermixed, which is owing to an alternation of layers of sand and 
loam, which are found by digging to a considerable depth. These layers aie not of gi-eat 
tliickness, and the accidental circumstance ot the washmg away of the sand in some places 
and the depositions from rivers in others easily account for this variety. Some of the eleva- 
tions, which are nowhere con.siderable, consist of a very poor sand, and suggest the idea of 
tlieir having once been the sands of tlie sea blown into hills, as is observable on the coast. 
These hills, if they may be so called, are naturally so barren tliat they were, not veiy long smce, 
covered with heath, or at best planted with fir trees ; but they have gradually been culti- 
vated and improved, and only a few remain in their original state of heath and wood. The 
poorer sands have been brought into cultivation chiefly by the perseveiing industry of small 
proprietors and occupiers." 

Have we not here a good general description of much of our southern 
Atlantic coast — the tide swamp and sandy plain — and even a graphically 
minute account of the " Sand Hill " region of South Carolina 1 

Instances of the reclamation of such lands might be indefinitely mul- 
tiplied. 

I do not offer the above facts to prove that it is either profitable or ex- 
pedient to reclaim all the sterile lands of the southern sea-board by the same 
means that have been resorted to about Albany, or in Flanders. Except 
in the vicinity of cities, where manures are plentiful and cheap, and un- 
common market facilities are offered, it would not be profitable, unless it 
can be accomplished by less expensive means. 

But it proves one and an important position : that it is the sterility of 
such soils — or perhaps their loose and " blowing " character in some places, 
their sun-baked hardness in others — which prevents them from spontane- 
ously producing esculent herbage ; and nothing in them, as has been 
frequently fancied, positively deleterious to vegetation. And it follows, 
hence, that whenever it \i, projitahle to convert them into grass lands, it is 
practicable so to do by the proper application of manures. But do I hear 
some of your South Carolina neighbors, of the anti-improvement school, 
(if you have any such,) say, " If our soils are, or can be made, generally, 
suitable for the production of the grasses, our climate cannot '{ " This 
position is obviously incorrect, as warmer climates, as, for example, Aus- 
tralia, the Cape of Good Hope, and various others, produce, where the 
soils are favorable, a luxuriant growth of grasses ; and South Carolina 
herself, as has been already shown, produces them bountifully in situations 
where neither the latitude nor the elevation abates one jot of the heat of 
your fervid climate. 

It is not impossible that the climate of the States farthest south — south, 
say, of North Carolina — may be unfavorable to certain grasses and clovers ; 
and perhaps so to the favorite ones of the Northern States. In relation 
to red clover, however, the acclimation of which is regarded by many as 
so important to those States, it seems Mr. Ruffin thought otherwise. He 
I says : 

" Perennial, or other permanent gi-asses, of whicli, doubtless, there may be found some 
peculiarly suited to the warm climate, (South Carolina,) would still more serve to give the 
great benefits of changed condition to the fields, independent oi' the much needed benefits 
of grass husbandry for feedmg of live-stock and giving rest and manure to the land. The 
grasses whose value has been fully established by long experience in more northern couu 



36 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. j 

tries, should be triocl — not because they are from the North, (which in itself is a sh-ong ob- \ 
jection,) but merely because their good qualities are known, and possibly some such grasses |J 
may as well suit a more southern ciime. And such, I trast, is red clover, the best of all ,J 
green and manuring crops. For although this was long held to belong to the North only, I j 
have fully experienced that iu locality and the perfection of its growth are fixed m^ich more > 
iy peculiarity of soil than by latitude. Not more than twenty years ago it was as general ; 
a behef in Lower Virginia, as now in South Carolina, that there the soil was too scanty and ] 
the sun too hot to raise red clover. But since marling and liming have made many of these i 
soils calcareous, it is found that neither the sandy soil nor hot and dry climate forbid the 
raising excellent and profitable crops of clover. And so hereafter it will be found in South 
Cai'olina."* ' 

In a Report by a Committee of the Milton Agiicultural Society, (em- ' 
bracing adjacent parts of Laurens and Newberry Districts, S. C.) made to ' 
the State Society in 1843, they state : 

" Our native gi-asses, except the crab grass, are of the poorest kiiid, principally sedge. Of i 
the artificial grasses, some fifials have been made with red clover and herds-grass. t On rich 
lots the first apj)ears to succeed very well. For alternating with tillage crops we do not 
know of its having been tried ; but our impression is, that without manuring more highly 
than is customaiy here, it will not answer. We are not aware that it has ever been sowed i, 
with gypsum. The herds-gi-ass, as far as it has been tiied, appeal's to succeed very well oq | 
tlie bottoms that border our branches and creeks."^; 

Lawrence and Newbeny are not in the tide-water region, but so far asij 
the effect of climate alone is concerned, their testimony has an equal 
bearing. 

I have little doubt that red clover may be cultivated on good, rich soils j 
even in the States south of North Carolina, and may possibly become, un-i 
der some circumstances, a profitable crop in their rotations ; but, as has [J 
been already remarked, it will not do as a,Jirst crop on very meager soils, | 
in any climate — and still less so, I apprehend, on such soils south of lati-t 
tude 34'-'. It is not, therefore, the crop which you need, to cheaply ame- 
liorate your poor and exhausted soils, to fit them either for grazing or for 
tillage. Grant that such soils can be fitted to produce it, as Mr. Ruffin 
suggests, by the application of lime or marl,|| these manures will be found 
expensive, can be but slowly obtained in quantit4es sufficient to ajaply toil 
large tracts, and, besides, when the soil is sufficiently ameliorated to canyi 
clover, it will carry most if not all of your ordinary tillage crops. Thoughl) 
cloYer would aid materially in the rotation, in sustaining or even improv- 
ing the fertility superinduced by lime or any other fertilizer, it is not, and 
cannot be made the original fertilizer on the sterile sands of warm climates. 
When we talk, therefore, of the initiatory steps by which such soils shall ( 
be brought from a state of barrenness to a state of production, clover does? 
not come w^ithin the category of appropriate agents. j 

Though red clover ranks in the first class, if not the first in that class,) 
on appropriate soils, as a grazing and manuring crop, I have never regard-) 
ed it as indispensable — as what the lawyers would style a sine qua non — • 
even in sustaining fertility anywhere except on rich calcareous wheatj 
lands, w^here a severe and exhausting rotation is resorted to. Where 
wheat is taken from the soil at least every alternate year, for ten, fifteen, 
or twenty years, without any manure, excepting the intervening crop, and 
the droppings of animals depastured on it, clover will better sustain the, 
land in the ultimately fatal struggle, than perhaps any other green ma-^ 



* Ruffin's Aerricultural Survey of S. C, 1843, p. 81. 

t This should be the Agrostis stricta or vulgaris — the Red Top of the North. Some writers designate It 
as thn one species, some as the other. 

t Ruffin's Agricultural Surv'ey of S. C, 1843 ; Appendix, p. 9. " 

II Unless, however, the soil conUiins more organic matter than I suppose to be the case with many oC 
your sandy soils, theory and practice both show that lime will not prove the proper manure. Though es-K 
ceedingly valuable in its place, experience shows that it b no agricultural panacea. I shall allude to this sub-' 
ject more fully in a subsequent letter. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 37 



nuring crop. But on the silicious grazing soils of Southern New- York, it 

is rarely used exclusively as a manuring crop, and is but little used, ex- 

' cepting slightly admixed with timothy, for pasture or meadows.* I think 

it should be used more ; but the fact stated shows that clover is not re- 

jj garded by practical men, who are perfectly familiar with it, as that indis- 

li pensable crop, in all situations, which some of its more extravagant pane- 

' gyrists would lead us to suppose. The conclusions which I would have 

I you deduce from the above facts and statements are, simply, that if clover 

is found to flourish with you without extra trouble and expense, you will 

do well to make use of it in your rotation ; if not, it is chimerical, in my 

judgment, to engage in an expensive struggle with natural disadvantages 

to force its cultivation. 

j The herds-grass (red top) spoken of by the Milton Society, is a good 
1 grass on moist (but not boggy) soils, and having been found to succeed 
I with you, is worthy of trial in such situations, but on dry soils, especially 
, on arid sands, it would entirely fiil. Nor have I much confidence in 
1 either timothy or spear (blue) grass, in such situations, in your latitude — 
fl none at all in the former. 

It would be well, probably, to try limited experiments with all grasses, 
? domestic and foreign, which have succeeded well on soils similar to your 
1 own ; as among these, some may be found which disregard climate, or are 
even better fitted to your climate than their indigenous one, as was the 
x case with timothy at the North. The same remark is also true in rela- 
■ tion to certain other esculents which are used as substitutes for the grasses, 
f and for gi-een manuring crops. 

,1 Notwithstanding the evident propriety of such experiments, I am 
•strongly inclined to the opinion that it is to your own native grasses and 
• esculents, or those of some kindred climate, you must look mainly for the 
1 basis of your grazing husbandry — and through this, the amelioration of 
: your poor and exhausted soils. 

! I regret that I can find no list of those native grasses which sward over 
Ithe deserted lands of the tide-water zone, and flourish with a tropical lux- 
i uriance in its swamps. You allude to them as ' native " grasses, so does 
I Mr. Ruffin. Mr. Seabrook, in his Report on Cotton Culture,| speaks of 
' " crop grass," by which I suppose he means Crab grass, ( PanicUtn san- 
^gvAnale,) coming up spontaneously after spring-sown peas; but farther 
I than this, neither of you specify varieties.] | Among these indigenous ones, 
i particularly those which spontaneously make their appearance on dry 
Bands, it would be exceedingly singular if there are not several very valua- 
ble grasses for your soils and climate — grasses the seeds of which should 
form a pait, if not suitable for the whole sowing, on the same kinds of 
soils on which they are found flourishing. 

Crab grass gi'ows in all parts of the southern States, and is a fair, though " 
not a very superior pasture and meadow grass. 

Golden millet fPanicum milliaceu?nj is a great producer and withstands 

I know of but very few farmers excepting mj'self, in this, (Cortland,) one of the best of the grazing 
counties, who sow unmixed clover seed. I confess myself decidedly partial to the crop. You may ride 
ten miles or more in many directions from my house, where half and frequently more than three-fourtha 
of the fields are in pasture or meadow, without observing live acres of unmixed clover. 

t For this elaborate and exceedingly able Report or Memoir, see Fanners' Library, 1845, October, No- 
vember and December Nos. 

II Since writing the above, I have received from a South Carolina correspondent the following list of 
grasses and other esculents which flourish in the lower part of that State. Crab grass (I>igitaria sangvi- 
nalis). earlier — the " Crowfoot" (EUusine Indira), a little later, are. he says, the best gi-asses for hay, and 
thrive in cultivated grounds from the month of June till frost. The "Wild Okra" (Viola palmaZa), the 
"Partridge Berry" (Mitchella reperts), the Wild Pea Vine, and several other esculents, obscure and un- 
known by name, flourish in most natural pastures from early spring till November. 



38 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

a warm climate, but it requires a good soil. It has been cultivated with 
great success by Mr. Affleck in (Adams county) Mississippi. 

Bermuda grass* (Ci/nodon dacti/lon) I have been led to consider, from 
the representations of Mr. Affleck, as the best grass, both for pasture and 
meadow, on the sterile sands of the tide-water zone. If half this enthu- 
siastic admirer believes of it is true, it is of inestimable value to the South, 
and for permanent pastui-es and meadows, is by far the best grass in the 
United States. Mr. A. says : 

" We are fully aware of all the objections made to the spreading of this grass, and have 
a practical knowledge of all the trouble it occasions ; and having also had several years' ex- 
iierience of its great, its incalculable value, we have no hesitation in stating that the latter is 
manifold greater than the former. The time is not far distant when all the rough feed cDn- 
sumed on pkntations will be made from this grass ; and when the planter will consider his 

hay crop tis of much more importance than his sugar or cotton The excellence of this 

plant for pasturage is evinced by two circumstances. It is prefeiTed by stock of every de- 
scrii)tion to all other grass, and it grows luxuriantly in every kind of soil. It possesses an 
additional advantage, that of binding the loosest and most bairen sandy tracts. But when it 
has once taken possession of close, rich soil, its extirpation is so difficult as almost to defy all 
the skill, industry and perseverance of farmers. It is used to bind the levees on the banks 
of the Mississippi, and of railroads. We saw it at Macon, Geo., Charleston, S. C, and so 
on, as far north as City Point, Virginia, where it partially covers the wharf. One hundred 
pounds of grass afford upward of fifty of dry hay ; and we do cut, as a regular crop, five 
tons of hay per acre each season. Were w^e to state how much more has been cut, we might 
strain the belief of om- readers. No other grass will yield such an amount of valual)le hay; 
surpass it in nutritive qualities ; sujaport on an acre of pasture such a quantity of stock ; wiU 
improve the soil more quickly ; or so effectually stop and fill up a wash or gully. But, on 
the other hand, its extirpation, when once well established, is ahnost impossible ; though to 
check and weaken it, so far as to grow a grain or cotton crop, is easy enough. To do this, 
pursue the course of the best fanners of Kentucky in their management of a blue-grass sod — 
with a good breaking plow, having a wheel and coulter, and a stout team, turn over evenly 
and nicely a sod four inches thick and as wide as the plow and team are capable of, follow 
iu the same furrow with another plow which casts the dirt well, and throw out as nnich of 
the fresh earth on top of the sod as possible or the depth of the soil will admit of. The crop 
that follows can easily be tended without disturbing the sod, and its gi-adual decay will 
greatly increase whatever crop may be planted on it — and that should be a shading one, 
com and peas or pumpkins, or winter oats followed by peas. Good farmers will understand 
that heavy crops of hay cannot be removed, iov many successive years, from any land , with- 
out some return in the shape of manure. To the careful, judicious farmer, who wishes to 
improve his land and his stock, and who does not expect to grow any crop without trouble, 
and who uses good plows, and keeps a stout team and that in prime order, we earnestly 
recommend to try an acre or two of tliis grass, in a situation where it caimot readily spread. 
To the careless farmer we say, touch it not."t 

The same gentleman writes me under date of Dec. 10th, 1846 : 

" Bennuda grass well set, which affords the finest and most nutritious pastui'age I have 
ever seen, will keep almost any number of sheep to the acre — three or four times as many 
as the best blue-gi'asa ! " 

Unless this is gross and willful exaggeration,;}: here you have a grass 
which is not only highly palatable and nutritive, but which will yield 
more thn.n double both of pasturage and hay, than the best gi-ass or clover 
of the Northern States ! || It has been tried as far south as New-Orleans, 
and the climate found no detriment to it. It will flourish on dry and al- 
most barren sands. § What can the farmer on the dry lands of the tide- 
water zone ask more 1 [ts inextirpable character I regard as decidedly in 

* CumberlRnd Grass — Wire grass of Virginia — Creeping Panic grass. 

t See Norman's riouthern Agricultural Almanac, for 1847. 

% Neither of which are wo permitted to suspect, from the well-known character and intelligence of Mr. 
Affleck. 

II People here in the North sometimes talk of getting three tons of timothy and four tons of clover (at 
two cuttings) per acre, but it is not done on one acre in ten thousand, on the best meadows I Two tons is 
a good, and by far above a medium yield, of timothy, and three, of clover. The large amounts of Ber- 
muda sometimes cut, which Mr. A. does not mention for fear of "straining the belief of his renders," he 
has slated to me personally, to be eiglil tons ! '. — equivalent to the yield of three first-rate acres of timothy 
on the best urazing lands of Southern New-York. 

§ Mr. Affleck informs me he has repeatedly seen it growing w^U in such situations. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 39 

"f _ ;~; ; 

its favor on millions and millions on the thinner and poorer soils of that 
aone — as once admitted, it will put an end to the unprofitable tillage 
practiced on them, and remove all temptation to resort to it on others, as 
they are gradually rescued from barrenness. It will thus compel the 
adoption of that pastoral system which can alone make these lands prof- 
itable, or save them, if the forebodings of those who have been reared on 
them and are deeply attached to them, can be credited, from ultimate de- 
sertion.* 

You have another fodder crop — and which may be made a green ma- 
nuring one, in no respect inferior to clover. The pea is to the South what 
clover is to the North.T There is something in your soil or climate, or 
both, which seems to be specifically adapted to the development of this 
plant — for it flourishes with you under a much greater variety of soils and 
circumstances than at the North. A leguminous plant, like clover, it draws 
much of its aliment from the atmosphere ; and it is perhaps as sensibly 
affected by the same cheap manure, plaster. Its haulm or straw, if cut and 
cured greenish, and well taken care of, makes a good, rich fodder relished 
by all kinds of stock. Peas are greedily eaten by neat stock, swine, and 
sheep, for which they form a healthy and highly nutritious food. The 
white field pea of the North is considered equivalent to our corn,| by 
measure, in fattening swine. For sheep, and particularly for breeding 
ewes, there is j^robably no feed in the world equal to nicely cured pea 
haulm, II with a portion of the seed left unthreshed.§ It gives them condi- 
tion and vigor — and prepares them to yield a bountiful supjsly of rich milk 
to their young. 

Though the pea is an annual, it becomes in effect a perennial. South, 
when it is desired, by suffering it to stand until some of the grain shells 
out.^ It will mature in a southern climate, sown late in the summer, so 
that one, and even two preceding crops of it might first be plowed in as a 
manure. It will ripen among Indian corn, sown after that plant has ceased 
to grow, and there have been successful expei'iments of sowing it late with 
wheat, oats, &c., to have it obtain its growth (to be plowed under as ma- 
nure) after those crops have been harvested. 

Sprengel gives the following analysis of the pea. 1,000 parts in the 
common dry state yield— 





15 -oO 


Straw. 

2-35 
30-70 

2-40 


Sulphuric acid 


.Scfd 

0-52 

-38 


Straw. 
3-3.5 
0-00 

10-85 


Lime and inaa:nesia . 

Phosphoric acid 


1-95 

1-90 


Silica, iron, &c 


4-40 



* Statements of this kind have been repeatedly made in the pages of the Monthly Farmer by southern 
gentlemen. 

t I had labored under the impression that the so-called pea — cultivated as a manuring crop in the South- 
ern States, was in reality a variety of the bean ; but Mr. Ruffin in his Agricultural Survey of South Caro- 
lina, Csee Report of 1843, p 81,) and Hon. W B. Sealirook in his Memoir on Cotton Cukure, (sec Monthly 
Journal of Agriculture, Dec, 1845, p. 287.) speaks of tiiis crop — the former again and ngmn—ns jjeas, with- 
out the qualification which would be expected from gentlemen of so much learning, in case they were 
speaking of a plant by a vulgar misnomer, instead of its real name. The peculiar value of the crop at the 
South in the particulars described, I tind asserted by Mr Ruffin, Mr. Affleck, and various other writers and 
Agricultural Societies, in the strongest tirms, and therefore it makes little difference, practically, whether 
the name is correct or not , but if not, the following analyses, (tc, are misplaced. The bean resembles 
the pea in its qualities and value, but is rather inferior to it. 

J The small, hard corn of the North contains more nturiment per bushel than the large soulhern com. 

II That is, cut and cured so that it will come out of the stock or mow bright, and with the leaves looking 
green— instead of having the ferniginous hue of over-ripe clover. 

§ If cut greenish and well cured, the greener puds will not thresh out readily, and then they are in ex- 
actly the proper condition for breeding-ewes. ]f the crop is very hght, cut it when all the puds are quite 
green, and feed it out without threshing. 

IT This is, however, poor economy in any case. If the obiec is peas, it is wasteful to the crop, and the 
quantity sown is uncertain ; bH.sides, the battlni is ruined for fodder. If the object is nianure, the loss is 
etill greater. Plants in diying lose the nitrogen contained in their sap, give up their saline matters, and are 
"resolved more or less completely into carlionic acid, which escapes iulo tlie air, and is so far lost " — ^ee 
Liebig on this subject, and also the clear and able remarks of Johnston, (Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, 
vol. ii. p. 17t), et supra.) 



40 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



The following table of the compai-ative value of manures, deduced from 
analyses made by Payen and Boussingault, will show the remarkable com- 
parative value of the pea as a manuring crop, and it will be found other- 
wise useful for reference : 

TABLE No. i. 



Kinds of Manure. 



Fa.nYi yard dung 

Dung water 

Wlieat straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 

Barley straw 

Wheat chaff. 

Pea straw 

Millet straw 

Buckwheat straw 

Dried potato tops 

With'd I'ves ol' beetroot 

Do. of potatoes 

Do. of carrots , 

Do. of heather 

Do. of oak , 

Do. of poplar , 

Do. of beech 

Clover roots 

Burned sea-weed 

Oyster shells 

Sea shells 

Seaside marl , 

Solid cow. dung , 

Urine of cows 

Solid horse-dung 

Horse urine 

Pig dung 

Sheep dung 

Pigeon dung 

Guano 

Do 

Fresh bones 

Feathers 

VVoolen rags 

Horn shavings 

Coal soot 

Wood soot 

Picardy ashes 



79 -a 
99-6 
19-3 
12-2 
21-0 
U-C 
7-6 

19-0 
11-6 

12 -y 

S8-0 

76-0 

70-9 

7-0 

2.5-0 

51-1 

39-3 

9-7 

3-8 

17-9 

1-0 
8.5-9 
83-3 
75-3 
79-1 
81-4 
63-0 

9-6 
19-6 
11-3 
30-0 
12-9 
11 -3 

9-0 
1.5-6 

5-6 

9-2 



Nitrogen in \ Quality 
iOOof matter, according to 
I state. 



Dry. 


Wet. 


1-9.5 


0-41 


1-54 


0-06 


0-30 


0-24 


0-20 


0->7 


0-3ii 


0-28 


0-2ti 


0-23 


0-94 


0-83 


1-95 


1-79 


0-96 


0-78 


0-54 


0-48 


0-43 


0-37 


4-50 


0-50 


2-30 


0-55 


2-94 


0-85 


1-90 


1-74 


1-57 


1-18 


1-17 


0-54 


1-91 


1-lS 


1-77 


1-61 


- 40 


0-38 


0-40 


0-32 


0-0.5 


0-05 


0-52 


0-51 


2-30 


0-32 


3-80 


0-44 


2-21 


0-55 


12-50 


2-61 


3-37 


0-63 


2-99 


1-11 


9-02 


8-30 


6-20 


5-00 


15-73 


13-95 




5-31 


17-61 


15-34 


->0-26 


17-98 


15-78 


14-36 


1-59 


1 -35 


1-31 


1-15 


0-71 


0-65 



Dry, Wet. 



100 
72 
15 
10 
]8 
13 
4 
100 
49 
2 

22 

230 

117 

150 

97 

80 

66 

78 

90 

20 

20 

3 

26 

117 

194 

113 

641 

172 

153 

462 

323 

807 

903 
1039 

809 
81 
67 
36 



100 

2 

60 

42- 

70 
57- 
212- 
447- 
195 
120 
92- 
125 
137- 
212- 
425 
293 
134 
294 
402- 
95 
80 
13 
128 
80 
110 
137- 
6.52- 
1.57- 
277- 
2075 
1247 
3487 
1326 
3835 
4495 
3590 
337- 
287- 
162- 



Equivalent 

according 

to state. 



Dry. 



100 

127 

6.50 

975 

542 

7.50 

207 

100 

203 

361 

453 

43 

85 

66 

103 

125 

167 

102 

110 

488 

488 

3750 

377 

84 

51 

88 

15i 

58 

65 

Ol J 
-' 2 

31J 
12^ 

11 

9i 

12l 

122 

149 



Wet 



100 

68 

167 

235 

143 

174 

47 

22 

51 

83 

108 

b'O 

73 

47 

23 

34 

74 

34 

25 

105 

125 

769 

78 

125 

91 

73 

15J 

63 

36 

5 

80 

•281 



Remarks. 



Average of Bechelbronn. 
Washed by the rain. 
Fresh of Alsace, 1838. 
Of Alsace. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Of mangel-wurzel. 
Withered top and leaves. 

Dried in the air. 
Leaves fallen in autumn. 

do. 

do. 
Dried in the air. 



Dried sea-shells of Dunkirk 



The horse drank but little, the 
[urine was thick. 

Of Bechelbronn. 
Imp. into Eng. in its ord. state. 
Imp. into France, do. 
As sold by the melters. 



It will be seen that pea straw is worth, as a manure, from .5 to 9 times 
as much as the straws of the small grains — is better than clover roots, and 
actually equals farm-yard dung ! 

Rye, oats and bailey send up a good growth of straw, in many parts 
of this zone, even where the product of grain is small ; and, sown in the 
fall, they afford sweet green pasturage, during the entire winter, in the 
more southern latitudes. This is a very important and a very favorable 
consideration in an economical system of sheep husbandry. All winter 
gx-een feed (roots) in the Northern States must be cultivated, harvested, 
protected from the frosts of winter in cellars, and daily fed out — which ne- 
cessarily renders it expensive. Where winter field crops can be depas- 
tured on the ground, it saves the greatest proportion of this expense ; and, 
though winter green feed is not indispensable to sheep, it promotes their 
health, early maturity, and is especially valuable to breeding-ewes. All 
the crops above named, too, can be profitably made use of as gieen 
manure. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 41 

Blades of corn, well cured, are relished by sheep, and they thrive on 
them.* 

The sweet potato is also readily eaten by them, and it fattens them per- 
haps as rapidly as any other root crop. Although it might be regarded as 
too valuable for sheep feed, in regions where the whole force is given to 
the culture of cotton, there are others where, I cannot but believe, it might 
be occasionally if not regularly resorted to with pi'ofit, unless rye, oats, 
barley, &c. can be provided so much more cheaply that it is no object so 
to do. It is so cheaply planted by slips, and tilled vsdth so little trouble, 
and it so admirably prepares land for subsequent crops,t that, on rich and 
otherwise favorable soils, my impression is strong it is, at all events, as 
cheap a winter feed for stock in the South as the Irish potato is in the 
North. Its average yield is about two-thirds that of the latter. The Irish 
potato is universally regarded as one of the cheapest feeds that can be 
given to all kinds of stock, to which it is adapted in the North. It is true 
that it is not fed so much as it would otherwise be, with us, in the winter, 
by reason of the cold. It is difficult to protect this root from freezing, and 
at the same time leave it accessible for daily feeding, without putting it in 
dwelling-house cellars, which are usually at some distance from the feed- 
ing barns and yards ; and besides, the conversion of this citadel of a north- 
ern matron's culinary stores, into a great, dirty root pit, would be a most 
giievous infringement on all the canons of good housewifery ! 

The foregoing facts show that the Southern States have already all that 
is necessary to feed stock and fertilize their fields. Their pea, take it all 
in all, is a full equivalent for the clover of the North.| By means of it — 
of Bermuda and some other grasses — aided by the droppings of sheep, and 
other cheap and convenient manures, a large proportion of the tide-water 
aone, now so unpi'oductive, can be converted into grazing lands, which will 
yield as good a per centage on present capital and investment as the best 
cotton uplands, and produce wool at a less expense per pound than any re- 
gion of the United States north of the Potomac. 



* A friend of mine wintered a few Merino sheep on not only the blades, but the stalks, of our northern 
corn, chopping the whole up together, and adding a little bran or shorts. He found it cheap feed, and the 
eheep got fat enough to slaughter before spring. 

t After the crop is harvested, swine are turned in, and they root the ground over so deeply and thor- 
oughly that it is in a better state of tillage than could be produced by mere spring plowing. 

% Mr. Ruffin, the great advocate for clover, admits that in the South it is not fitted to precede Indian com, 
on account of the destructive cut worms it harbors, unless the land be plowed " early in wintei," or other 
precautionary steps are taken. The pea is not liable to this objection. See RufRn's Ag. Survey of S. C, 
1843, p. 78. 



42 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER IV. 

THE ADAPTATION OF THE SOILS, HERBAGE, &c. OF THE SOUTHERN 
STATES TO SHEEP HUSBANDRY, CONTINUED. 2. OF THE MIDDLE OB. 
HILLY ZONE. 3. OF THE MOUNTAIN REGION. 



« 



Climate, Poils, aud Productions of the Middle or Hilly Zone — Its evident Adajitation to Sheep Husbandry 
...'I'he Mountain Region. . .Altitudes of ditt'erent Ranges and Peaks — Their general Shape — Freedom from 
Rocks, Precipices, &c... Table Lands -Their Geological Formations — Products. . .Mr Clinaman's Letter 
descril)ing the Roan and other Mountains in North Carolina. . -Mr. Buckley's Counter Statements.. .Mr. 
Earle's Description of the Mountains in Henderson and Rutherford Counties, North Carolina. . .Col. Cols- 
ton's Statements in relation to the Mountains in Berkley County, Virginia.. .Hon. A. Stevenson's in rela- 
tion to the Blue Ridge, and the Mountains in the South-west of Virginia — Hon. W. L. Goggin's in relation 
to the same- . .Judge Beatty's Account of Sheep Husbandry on the Cumberland Mountains— Mr. Kramer's { 
.. .Mr. Buckley's Views in relation to the North Carolina Mountains examined and olijected to. . -Climate - 
of the Roan and others compared with that of the Grazing Lands of New-York- . .Statistics showing the \ 
Forwardness of the Seasons aud the Temperature in New-York.. .Efi'ect of Elevation on Temperature- 
On Vegetable Productions. 

Dear Sir : The middle or hilly zone is high, dry, healthy, and has a 
mild and, compared with the North, equable climate.* Its soils possess 
the ingredients due to its formation — disintegrated granite — and are far , 
more fertile than those of the lower zone. Sometimes on the summits of 
the hills they are poor and thin, and there are occasionally extensive ranges 
of poor land, as in Virginia ; but as a general thing, they vary from fair to 
good ; and on the bottom lands of some of the rivers and larger creeks, 
they possess remarkable fertility. The valleys, however, are generally 
narrow, and are everywhere the bed of streams, which abundantly water 
this whole region, and furnish inexhaustible facilities for mills and manu- 
factories. The slight cohesion of the soil, aided by the face of the country 
and the system of tillage pursued in many parts of it,t render it peculiarly 
subject to washing by heavy rains. The hill-sides are frequently cut into 
deep gullies, rendering aration difficult,| and the surface soil is washed 
into tiie valleys and into the beds of the creeks, not only impoverishing the 
high lands, but, by impeding the cour-ses of the streams, in some regions 
converting those of the valleys into unhealthy marshes.] | 

Grasses suited to the climate flourish when sown, and on lands not ut- 
terly worn out, throughout all this region ; and there is little doubt that 
every variety which could be acclimated on the sands of the lower zone, 
could be more readily acclimated here — and probably various others. The 
pea succeeds in nearly every situation ; oats also form a valuable ma- 
nuring crop in some parts ; while on many of the alluvial bottoms, such, 
for example, as the Blackjack lands of South Carolina — rye grows luxuri- 
antly, answering a valuable purpose either for grain, manure, or for winter 

* The range ot the thermometer is sometimes 6(P to 75° in a single month (March or April) in New- 
York ! 

t That is. n constant succession of clean tillage crops, such as cotton, com, and tobacco. 

:{: The Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, in their Report before quoted from, say : "The only really 
waste land weltave is our old fields, many of which are so washed and gullied as to be absolutely irre- 
claimable." Mr. Ruffin says that '• the destruction both of soil and of fertility has been enonnous " from 

II " The country was, at first, as its features indicated, nearly free from malaria and all its noxious effects. 
Hut as soon as the incessant and injudicious use of the plow caused the soil to be washed from the hilly 
grounds into the bottoms, the before unobstri>cted clean bordered channels of all the small streams were 
filled and clogaed with earth, and veLtetable rubbish, and tiner matter, and the adjacent low lands were 
therebv rendered swampy. The washing of the high land earth into the valleys so altered the original sur- 
face level as to kill the trees ; and their decay, and. latter, the obstructions by their fallen trunks, increased the 

general evil I infer " that these cau-es "have mainly served to nourish malaria and increase the 

malignity of disease." [Rullin's Ag Survey of S. C, 1843, p. S6.J 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 43 



feed for stock. In this last particular, it would be, as I have before said, 
an important auxiliary in sheep husbandry. 

The adaptation of most of this region to sheep husbandry is too obvious 
to require extended comment ; and it becomes, therefore, simply a ques- 
tion of profit and loss, whether it is expedient to introduce it.* Let us turn 
therefore, to the adaptation of the mountain region to this branch of industry 
The altitude of the southern mountains, with a few exceptions, is not 
very considerable. The loftiest, the Black and the Roan, in North Caro- 
lina, are respectively 6,476 and 6,038 feet in bight. The Peaks of Otter, 
the highest, and summits of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, are 4,250, and the 
highest Alleganies 2,500 feet high. Table Mountain in South Carolina 
is about 4,000, and the terminal masses of the Blue Ridge in Georgia are 
about l,500.t The hight of the Cumberland Mountains, the most western 
chain, I nowhere find stated, but they are not reputed as high as some of 
the preceding. It will be seen, therefore, that none of the southern moim- 
tains rise above the range of the grasses. They are usually broad at the 
base, easy of ascent, and rounded or flattened on their summits, instead 
of rising fi-om naiTow bases into steep pyramidal forms with conical peaks ; 
and from their geological formations and their shape (resulting probably 
fi'om that formation,) they are uncommonly free from exposed rocks, preci- 
pices and abrupt acclivities. With the exception, perhaps, of the Cum- 
berland chain, large, exposed rocks abound far less, on most of these 
mountains than in many parts of New-England, or even the Old Red Sand- 
stone region of Pennsylvania, which are not ojily pastured, but plowed ! 
Indeed, a side-hill plow, drawn by oxen, could be used on very many of 
the southern mountains, if cleared, to their very summits ; and this is true, 
singular as it may appear, of some of the loftiest of them.| The Cumber- 
land Mountains are spoken of by Doct. Morse, as " stupendous piles of 
craggy rocks," and in these statements he has been followed by more re- 
cent geographers. But if this description applies to some portions of the 
chain, it certainly does not to others, as I shall have occasion to show. 
. On the sides, and sometimes on the summits of the mountains in differ- 
ent parts of this whole region, extensive plains or table lands, already 
pretty well covered with wild and domestic grasses and nutntious escu- 
lents, not unfrequently occur. Esculents suitable for sheep are to be 
found in greater or less quantities on nearly all of them. 

West of the summit of the Blue Ridge, the geological formations, as 
has before been stated, belong to the Transition period — a rather unusual 
circumstance in mountain ranges, and undoubtedly more indicative of 
fertility in the superincumbent soils than the ordinary Primary formation. || 
Indeed, they are the same with those of the best grazing lands of South- 
ern New-York, and subtracting climatic and other§ effects of elevation, 
they should possess a general correspondence in their properties and pro- 
ducts, with the latter.^ 

* This question will be fully discussed in a subsequent letter, 
t For these altitudes I am indebted to Professor Mitchell. 

I For example, the Roan. 

II It is true that soils formed from Primary rocks, when sufficiently fertile to sustain herbage of any kind, 
are peculiarly adapted to the production of sweet gi'asses ; but mountains of this formation are u.«ually 
steeper, from the slower decomposition of granite, gneiss, and other Primary rocks, and their steepness ex- 
poses them to increased abrasion, or washing. Hence their soils frequently but thinly cover the rocks, 
and are of a meaiier and lixiviated character. 

§ To wit. abrasion and denudation by rains. And, moreover, the " northern di-ift " of New-York has added 
a little lime to the soils formed Irom these rocks, and thus supplied, measurably, a want existing in all of 
them for most tillage crops. 

f. For example, the " ."^late Hills." which rise on the west of Augusta, Rockinsham, Shenandoah, Fred- 
erick and some other counties in Virginia, are composed of the same rocks (Hamilton aronp, including 
Genesi'e slate of the New-York system.) which underlie some of the best Eoil.= in New-York : and much 
of the land between these hills and the Alleganies restsj on the same rocks, (Chemung,) which underlie 
the southern grazing region of New-Y'ork. 



44 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

In ascertaining the particular products of these mountains, their climate, 
and general adaptation to sheep husbandry, I will first call your attention 
to the often quoted letter from Hon. T. L. Clingman, of North Carolina, 
to John S. Skinner, Esq., in 1844. Mr. Clingman says : 

" You state that you have directed some attention to the Sheep Husbandry of the United 
States, in the course of which it has occurred to you that the people of the mountain regions 
of North Carolina, and some of the other Southern States, have not availed themselves sutfi- 
ciently of their natuial advantages for the production of sheep. Being myself well acquaint- 
ed with the western section of North Carolina, I may perhaps be able to give you most of 
the infbmiation you desire. As you have directed several of your inquu-ies to the county 
of Yancey, (I presume from the fact, well known to you, that it contains the highest moun- 
tains in any of the United States,) I will, in the first place, turn my attention to that county. 
First, as to its elevation. Dr. Mitchell, of our University, ascertained that the bed of Tow 
River, the largest stream in the county, and at a ford near its center, was about 2,200 feet 
above the level of the ocean. Bunisville, the seat of the court-house, he found to be be- 
tween 2,800 and 2,900 feet above it. Tlie general level of the country is, of coui'se, much 
above this elevation. In fact, a number of the mountain summits rise above the hight of 
6,000 feet. The climate is delightfully cool duiing the summer; in fact there are very few 
places in the county where the thermometer rises above SO'^ on the hottest day. An intel- 
ligent gentleman who passed the summer in the northern part of the county (rather the 
more elevated portion of it) infomaed me that the thermometer did not rise on the hottest 
da 's above 76°. 

' You ask, in the next place, if the surface of the gi-ound is so mucn covered with rocks aa 
to reader it unfit for pasture ? The reverse is the fact; no portion of the county that I have 
passed over is too rocky for cultivation ; and in many sections of the county one may travel 
miles without seeing a single stone. It is only about the tops of the higher mountains that 
rocky precipices ai'e to be found. A large portion of the surface of the county is a sort of 
elevated table-land, undulating, but seldcnn too broken for cultivation. Even as one as- 
cends the higher mountains, he will find occasionally on their sides Hats of level land con- 
taining several hundred acres in a body. The top of the Roan (the highest mountain in the 
county except the Black) is covered by a prairie for ten miles, which affords a rich pasture 
' during the greater part of the year. The ascent to it is so gradual that persons ride to the 
top on horseback from almost any direction. The same may be said of many of the other 
mountains. The soil of the county generally is uncommonly fertile, producing with tolera- 
ble cultivation abundant crops. What seems exti-aordinary to a stranger is the fact that the 
Boil becomes richer as he ascends the mountains. The sides of the Roan, the Black, the 
Bald, and others, at an elevation even of five or six thousand feet above the sea, are covered 
with a deep, rich vegetable mould, so soft that a horse in dry weather often sinks to the fet- 
lock. The fact that the soil is frequently more fertile as one ascends is, I presume, attrib- 
utable to the circumstance that the higher portions are more commonly coveied with clouds ; 
and the vegetable matter being thus kept in a cool, moist state wliile decaying, is incorpo- 
rated to a greater degree with the surface of the earth, just as it is usually found that the 
north side of the hill is richer than the portion most exposed to the action of the sun's rays. 
iVie sides of the mountains, the timber being generally large, wilh little imdergrowth and 
brushwood, are peculiarly fitted for pasture gromids, and the vegetation is m many places as 
luxuriant as it is in the rich savannah of the low country. 

" The soil of every part of the county is not only favorable to the production of grain, but 
is peculiarly fitted for grasses. Timothy is supposed to make the lai-gest yield, two tons of 
hay being easily produced on an acre, but herds-gi-ass, or red-lop, and clover succeed equally 
well ; blue-grass has not been much tried, but is said to do remarkably well. A friend 
showed me several spears which he infonned me were produced in the northern part of the 
county, and which by measurement were found to exceed 70 inches in length. Oats, rye, 
potatoes, turnips, &c., are produced in the greatest abundance. 

" With respect to the prices of land, I can assure you that large bodies of uncleared, rich 
land, most of which might be cultivated, have bee,n sold at prices varying from 2.5 cents to 
50 cents per acre. Any quantity of land favorable for shee[>-walks might be procured in 
any section of the county at prices varying from one to ten dollars per acre. 

" The few sheep that exist in the county thrive remarkably well, and are sometimes per- 
mitted to run at large during the winter without being fed and without suffering. As the 
number kept by any individual is not larfji^ enough to justify the employment of a shepherd 
to take care of them, they are not unfr<-([Ui'ntly destroyed by vicious dogs, and more rai'ely 
by wolves, which have not yet been entirely exterminated. 

" I have been somewhat prolix in my observations on this county, because some of your 
inquiries were directed particularly to it, and because most of what I have said of Yancey is 
true of the other counties west of the Blue Ridge. • Haywood has about the same elevation 
and climate as Yancey. The mountains are rather more steep, and the valleys somewhat 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 45 

broader; the soil generally not quite so deep, but very productive, especially in grasses. In 
some sections of the county, however, the soil is equal to the best I have seen. 

" Buncombe and Henderson ai'e rather less elevated; Ashville and HendersonviUe, the 
county toviTis, being each about 2,200 feet above the sea. The chmate is much the same, 
but a very little warmer. The more broken portions of these counties resemble much the 
mountainous parts of Yancey and Haywood, but they contain much more level land. In- 
deed the greater portion of Henderson is quite level. It contains much swamp land, which, 
when cleared, witli veiy little if any drainage, produces very fine crops of herds-grass. Por- 
tions of Macon and Cherokee counties are quite as favorable, both as to climate and soil, as 
those above described. I would advert particularly to the valley of the Nantahalah, in Ma- 
con, and of Cheoh, in Cherokee. In either, for a comparatively trifling price, some ten or 
fifteen miles square could be procured, all of which would be rich, and the major part suf- 
ficiently level for cultivation, and especially fitted, as their natural meadows indicate, for the 
production of grass. 

" In conclusion, I may say, that as far as my limited knowledge of such matters authorizes 
tne to speak, I am satisfied that there is no region that is more favorable to the production 
of sheep than much of the country I have described. It is ever^^wliere healthy and well 
watered. I may add, too, that there is water-power enough in tlie different counties com- 
posing my Congressional District to move more machinery than human labor can ever place 
there — enough, perhaps, to move all now existing in the Union." 

A writer in the Albany Cultivator, Mr. S. B. Buckley, of Yates county. 
New- York, who has visited these mountains, thus objects to the views of 
Mr. Clingman : 

" These mountains have a cold, damp climate, the summits of the highest being covered 
with clouds and mists a large portion of the summer season. Cold rains are of frequent oc- 
currence, doubtless causing the deep vegetable mould alluded to by Mr. C. A large por- 
tion of the county of Yancey is an elevated table-land which is so damp and cold that the 
inhabitants do not raise corn sufficient for their own constimption Mr. Husted in- 
formed me that in many seasons there was scarcely a month in the year without fi'ost .... 
that he had been on the top of the Roan on the 25th of .Tune, when a snow stomi arose and 
completely covered the mountain, and that there were few^ days in the year but that it was 

foggy on the Roan I have ascended most of the high mountains in that State, and 

rarely without encountering a storm, or finding their tops covered with mists, which disap- 
peared in the cool of the evening, to be resumed by the wai-muig rays of the morrow's sun. 
In encamping on the mountains, I generally found the thermometer to range' from 45° to 60°, 
and on the high mountains, dui-ing the day, it seldom rose above 65°. The inhabitants of 
the valleys pay gi'eat attention to the raismg of cattle and horses, which, in the summer sea- 
son, are turned upon the mountains in what is termed ' the range,' which consists of tall 
weeds, native grasses, and in many places white clover has become naturalized. * * * * 

" These remarks will apply more or less to the mountainous region of Haywood and Ma- 
con counties, fi'om which we conclude that they are not suitable to the raising of fine-wooled 
sheep, judging fi-om their elevation, damp and cold chmate, which, as before remarked by 
Mr. C, creates a deep vegetable mould, in Vv'hich a horse will sink up to the fetlock. And 
would not sheep smk in also, and be liable to have the foot-rot ? And in yeaning time would 
not many lambs be lost fi-om the frec^uent cold rams so common there dming the month of 
May?"* 

In a previous communication in the Cultivator the same winter says : f 

" On the 12th of May I arrived at AshviUe, (the capital of Buncombe county,) intending 
to visit Mt. Pisgah, a high conical mountain in full view, about twelve miles distant, over- 
topping its neighbors. I was told that the season was not fai- enough advanced to briiig 
vegetation forward on the high mountains. . . . The climate of this region is not much, if 
any, warmer than that of Western New-York. During the summer of 1842, the thermome- 
ter ranged generally from 70° to 85° in the valleys, wliile on the mountains it was frequently 

about 60°, and sometimes much lower When I left the southern portion of Alabama, 

it was the middle of March ; the woods were gi-een, with their fiill expanded leaves ; in 
about a week I had reached the elevated region south of Huntsville, in the northern part of 
the State, where the leaves had not yet attained half their usual size. From the 1st to the 
10th of April, in Middle Tennessee, the leaves were nearly full grown and the inhabitants 
were busy in plantuig com ; but at the middle of April, for thirty miles on the table land of 
the Cumberland Mountains, the trees had just begun to put forth their leaves, and the ground 
was white in the morning with a severe frost. 

" On descending into the plains of East Tennessee, the country was green with verdure, 
and the farmers were there also busy in planting com, and now, the middle of May, among 

• See Albany CultivBtor, 1846, p. 242. t lb., 1846, p, 174. 



46 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



the mountains of Nonli Carolina, I found myself where vegetation had scarcely clothed the 
plains and woods with green, while ihe leaves of the high mountain trees were about half 
grown. I should also remark that the sj>ring of 1842 was from two weeks to a month ear- 
lier than usual." 

I record a portion of the last extract for subsequent reference ; and the j 
object of these communications being to ai-rive at the truth, and not to 
ride a favorite hobby, or advance a preconceived theory, I have thought 
it proper to give the substance of all this gentleman's remarks, embodying 
as they do all the objections, real or supposed, which exist against the 
highest mountains in the whole Southern States for the purposes of sheep 
husbandry. 

Per contra, we have the following statements of Henry M. Earle, Esq., 
of Pacolett, Rutherford Co., North Carolina : * 

" On the question whether wool-growing vdll succeed in North Carolina or not, I would 
say that it dspends entirely upon the exertions used, as I am thoroughly convinced that the 
country and climate are altogether favorable. The objections raised by Mr. Buckley, if they 
existed in all the mountain region, might be considered serious ; but as tliey can only be of- 
fered against a few very high mountains, situated in the midst of many other mountains, and 
far from any level or plain country, such a hiding place as he speaks of would not be such a 
place as persons raised iu civilized or refined society would wish to settle in. The Roan 
and Black Mountains were selected by Mr. Thos. Clingman, because they were the most 
elevated and noted mo\intains in Yancey Co., and not, I presume, because he thought they 
■would afford the best pasturage for sheep ; if so he was mistaken. On those mountains and 
in their vicinity are the finest grazmg lands for cattle ; and so there is in the low, marshy 
land of South Carolina ; but neither location is iavorable for sheep. I agi-ee with Mr. Buck- 
ley, ' that a large portion of the county of Yancey is an elevated table land, which is so 
damp and cold that the inhabitants frequently do not raise com sufficient for their own con- 
auraplioa.' This is pailly owing to the climate ; but mostly to the character of many of the 
inhabitants of those sparsely inhabited regions, where they too fi-equently depend upon the 
success of the chase for the largest portion of their subsistence. 

" But if Mr. Buckley, or any other gentleman of observation, will come 60 miles far- 
ther south — on the Ihie of the Blue Ridge, into Henderson and Rutherford counties, about 
the Tryon Mountain, which is the first that he will ascend in rising up fi-om the level coun- 
ti-y east of the Blue Ridge, along the Howard-Gap Turnpike — high on the acclivity of the 
Tryon he will find a bench of land which possesses a very peculiar characteristic. At night, 
generally, there is a pleasant breeze, and for several miles along the mountain side there is 
never any dew to be found, and it is very rare that they have frost except in winter ; and 
when the whole country above and below is covered with sleet, along this mountain side 
there is none. Here grOw the finest native gi-apes that I ever saw, and the fruit crop never 
fails. And here are gi-owu the heaviest wheat and rye in all the country. Here the inhabit- 
ants have the first dawn of the morning sun, and persons unaccustomed to the view fancy 
that they can almost see him coming up from the watery deep. On the eastern side of this 
mountiiin is the earliest pasturage in spruig, and tlie latest iu the fall that is found m the 
whole range of mountains. 

" This location is about 46 miles E. S. E. from AshN-ille, and 20 miles S. S. W. from 
Rntherfordton. Here two of those ever persevering men from the North, called Yankees, 
have commenced to wall ui a vineyard, and to cultivate the broom-corn for manufactuiing 
brooms. They have the purest water that flows out of the earth, and around tln'm are 
beautiful cascades more than a hundred feet high, and above them the toppling pealt of the 
Tryon. 

" Thousands of persons throng this mountain region during the summer, to enjoy the pure, 
bracing atmosphere, which on the eastern face of the mountain is dry and healthfiil ; but 
farther back, iu the mountains of the French Broad, there is much more dampness and 
heavy fogs. 

" You may readily conclude that along the eastern slopes of these mountains, the climate 
and country are finely adapted to the growth of wool, as may also be seen by many of the tine 
flocks of native unimproved sheep, wliich wander here imtended, regai'dless of wolves or 
dogs, then- gi-eatest enemies. 

" For two hundred miles along the eastern slopes of these mountains, south, there are 
situations well suited for large flocks of sheep, and land is cheap. In many places it does 
not cost more thiiu 20 cents per acre, and very fair land may be had for 40 cents per acre." 

In an Address,t remarkable for the force and pertinency of its sugges- 

* See Albany Cultivator, 1846, pp. 335-336. 

t Delivered "in Martinsburg, Va., Oct. 30ih, 184.5, before the Berkley County Agricultural Society, pub- 
linked in the Valley Farmer, Dec. 1845, and Jan. 1846. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 47 

I tions, Col. Edward Colston, of Berkley county, Virginia, makes the fol- 
j lowing statements : 

' " The western part of our county, containing perhaps 30,000 acres, is mountainous. I 
have ridden thei-e lor ten miles without seeing a human habitation, and although from its 
abundant herbage it might sustain for its owners 20,000 head of sheejj, not a single one is te 
be found grazing on its surface. In this region may be found, also, much land fit for culti- 
vation, with fine meadows and abundant water. Yet all this is worthless to our community, 
and a dead capital to the proprietors. There is territory and grass enough here to be di- 
vided into three or four sheep-walks, each sustaining from 3,000 to 4,000 sheep daring the 
summer, with meadow and arable land enough, at a small expense, to provide amply for 
winter sustenance." 

Hon. Andrew Stevenson, of Virginia, in a letter to Mr. Skinner,* says : 

'Virginia has many advantages for breeding sheep, not surpassed in the United States. 
The middle part of the State, and especially the whole range of the south-west Mountains 
and Blue Ridge, afford the greatest facilities for fine sheep-walks. Hills covered with tine 
herbage, extensive inclosures, abundance of running water, and well sheltered by trees 
against the heat and sun of summer." 

The following extracts are from a communication in the Monthly Jour- 
nal of Agriculture,t by Hon. W. L. Goggin, who recently represented the 
District he describes in Congi-ess : 

" Bedford, the county in which I reside, is bounded on the south side by the Staunton 
River, on the nor-th by the .Tames River, while its western extremity, the whole length, 

reaches the top of the Blue Ridge The Peaks of OtterJ ai-e situated in this county, 

on the north-west corner — they are not only beautiful themselves, when seen as they are in 
the distance, but the whole range of the Blue Ridge presents, perhaps, here, the most inter- 
esting view of the kind in the State. These mountains afford an unlimited range for stock, 
and the advantages for sheep-walks (mild as is the climate, combined with the productive- 
ness of the soil) that ai'e nowhere equaled, as is believed, except by similar situations in 

the neighboring counties Ranges for sheep may be had at a very reduced price on 

tlie mountains, and where, too, could be produced all the grasses in which they delight, such 
as the red and white clover, the meadow fox-taO, short blue meadow-gi'ass, lucern, rye-grass, 
&c. These advantages, and then the beautiful, clear streams which abound in all the moun- 
tain regions, invite a pastoral life." Speaking of Amherst and Nelson counties, he says: 
' The ranges for stock here, too, are extensive, and the beautiful, rich mountain sides inter- 
spersed with fann-houses, some of them even elegant mansions, betoken an independence 
among the inhabitants that is often found in such situations. Many of the mountains, to 
their vei-y summits, are covered with the richest veixlure." Of Madison and Greene coun- 
ties he says : " Here, too, are abundant ranges, and the wonder is that sheep husbandry is 
not introduced." 

The character of the loftier mountains of Virginia and North Carolina, 
for the production of grasses, would seem to leave no doubt, in this par- 
ticular, in regard to the lower ones which form the prolongation of the 
same chains in South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Let us now turn 
our glance to the great western chain — the Cumberland Mountains — in 
Kentucky and Tennessee. 

The following extracts are from a communication published by Hon. A. 
Beatty in the American Agriculturist : 

" But it is not upon our high-priced rich lands alone that we can carry on sheep husbandry 
to advantage. Kentucky has a belt of hill and mountain country, bordering on the Vii-ginia 
line on the east, and on the rich lands of the State on the west, averaging about seventy-five 
mUes in width, extending from the Ohio River and Big Sandy, latitude 38° 30', to the Ten- 
nessee line, 36° 30' north. The whole of this region is admirably adapted to sheep hus- 
bandry ; the most northern part but a few minutes north of my residence, and extending 
about two degrees farther south. The lands are very cheap : the State price of those not 
yet appropriated only five cents per acre, and those purchased second-hand, more or less 
improved, may be had from 25 to 50 cents per acre, and still, less when unimproved. This 
country in a state of nature fiirnishes, during the spring, summer, and fall months, a fine 
range for sheep, and is susceptible of great improvement by clearing up and sowing the cul- 
tivated grasses for winter feeding. This whole country is finely adapted to the Spanish 

* Monthly Journal of Agriculture, July, 1845, pp. 37-39. t lb., October, 1845, pp. 181-183. 

{ The loftiest raountaine, as before stated, of Virginia. 



48 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

mode of sheep husbandry. Very large flocks might be driven to the mountain re^on, some ' 
thirty to sixty miles from the rich laniLs, immediately after shearing time, grazed till late in 
the fall, and then brought back to be sustained during the whiter on the luxuriant blue 
grass pastures of the rich lands of the interior. 

" A very intelligent friend, residing in the southern part of the above district of country, 
epeaks of it in the foUoviring terms : ' One of the strongest proofs of this region of country 
being favorable to the growing of sheep stock is that we are situated in the same degree of 
north latitude with the sheep-raising parts ot Spain — Leon, Estremadura, Old Castile, tfec. — 
only that our mountains are more richly and aljundantly clad with luxuriant wild gi-asses 
and fern, pea vine, and shrubbery, than the mountain regions of Spain, where they raise 
such abundant stocks of sheep. Wayne County, with a few adjoining counties, affords more 
fine water-power than any country of the same extent that I have ever known ; and for 
health, and fine, pure drinking water, no country excels it on the face of the globe. Now is 
the time to commence the business of sheep husbandry, while land can be got almost for 
nothing. It is worthy of remark that our sheep, which are suffered to roam and gi'aze in f 
the mountains altogether, produce about one-fourth more wool at a shearing than the sheep 
that are raised and grazed altogether on our farms, and of much better quality.' In an- f, 
other part of his letter he says : ' The tops of the mountains of Spain are sterile, without '' 
verdure, producing no food for sheep, or other animals, to graze on. Our mountains are i 
quite different. They are thickly clad from bottom to top, and all over the top, with fine 
rich wild grasses and shrubbery of every variety, for stock to graze on. In the midst of 
our mountains are to be found a great abundance of salt water and stone coal of the finest 
quality, together with a great variety of mineral waters and pure spruigs.' 

" Another friend, residing in Knox County, writes to me : ' My sheep upon my farm, ad- 
joinmg BarboursviUe, do not thrive, even with pasture and winter food, like the sheep in 
the extremities of the county, which have neither pastures nor winter food, except what 
they get in the woods. Without cultivated grasses of any description, sheep wall live and 
do well all the winter, subsisting on the spontaneous growth of the country.' 

" Another friend, residing in the northern poition of the above-described mountain region, 
writes that ' the counties of Carter and Lawrence, and the eastern portion of the State, are 
admirably adapted to sheeji husbandry. There are several flocks of sheep in this neighbor- 
hood that thrive and mcrease wonderfully, running at large, at little cost or trouble to their 
owners. Many flocks have no other reliance, diuing the winter, but what they get in the 
w^oods. Tiie gi'eal advantages of tliis country for sheep husbandly are, the cheapness of the 
land, it adaptation to grasses, gi'ain, and roots — its healthfulness. Sheep delight in moun- 
tain or hilly land ; the natural evergreens and shrubbery upon which sheep can feed and 
subsist on in winter ; though it is not safe to rely altogether upon these. ' " 

Mr. C. F. Kramer of Woolverly Farm, Marion Co. Tennessee, i» a com- - 
munication in the Nashville Agriculturist,* says : 

" After having spent part of the years '43 and '44 on different parts of the Cumberland 
Mountains — the part of Tennessee more particularly recommended by all writers in your 
journal, and others, for sheep-walks — I have, since last fall, settled on a portion of them 
near Jasper, Marion Co. and will, as briefly as possible, give you the result of my experi- 
ence, which will, I beheve, fully remove any erroneous impressions hitherto made. 

" First, as to climate : The extreme salubrity of the mountains makes them the general 
refuge of the sick. Sheep here are remarkably healthy, and exempt from disease. The 
temperature is very even, varying during summer seldom more than from 75*^ to 80"-" of 
Fahrenheit, nor in winter more than from 4.5° to 30°. Snow during the two winters, little 
as there was of it, never remained forty-eiglit hours on the gi'ound. 

" The forest, so far from being dense, seldom contains more timber, after cutting out the 
smaller growth, as dogwood, &c. than is desirable for woodland pasture. 

" The rocks, as far as my rambles have extended, are ' few and far between.' The bet 
ter spots of soil (and there are enough to provide eveiy fann with sufficient remunerating 
arable land, under a provident and enlightened system of tillage) are covered with nutri- 
tious weeds, as pea-vine, &c. &c. which are nearly all greedily devoured by sheep and cat- 
tle, and on which they fare well. The poorer soil is covered with sedge-grass, which my 
sheep have invariably eaten with avidity. 

" When our herds and blue grass lands, which we are laying down, will be fit for pastur- 
ing, the cost of wintering will be greatly reduced, as the former yields good gi-azing in Feb- 
ruary — tJie latter during the whole winter. Our young cattle kept in good condition on the 
w^mter-range and two ears of com per head per day. 

" Although the wolves of our mountains are larger than those of the prairies, and may be 
more difficult to exterminate entirely, yet, thanks to our good hunters, their ranks have been 
already so thinned that they mostly prowl about alone, or at most in pairs, committing their 
depredations by night, on the sheep and hogs that are left to shift for themselves. In the 

• June, 1846. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



49 



two years that I have been here, I know of but two instances of their having attacked young 
stray cattle by night. By day, sheep are perfectly safe ; and I should presume that every 
good sheep-master would have his flocks, for inspection, home at night, when any commoa 
fence will be an ample safeguard for them." 

To recur, for a moment, to Mr. Buckley's statements in relation to the 
Roan and some of the contiguous mountains in North Carolina — if we 
concede all his positions to be correct — it but proves that they are excep- 
tions to a general rule. But a review of his facts, it seems to me, scarcely 
justifies his conclusions. 

The vegetation which seemed so backward to him, coming from the 
warmer climate of Alabama and Lower Teimessee, was in fact but little, 
if any, later than that of the elevated grazing lands of Southern New- 
York. The following table* will show the average forwardness of the 
seasons at the location of fifty-eight Academies, scattered over New-York, 
for a term of fifteen yeare. And these Academies, as would be supposed, 
are rarely found on the high bleak hills. In fact, the number in the south- 
ern graaing region is but small, and they are mostly on the low bottoms of 
the larger streams. The same remark will also apply to the high region 
between the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain. 

TABLE NO. 5. 



Shadbush in bloom. 



Peach 


do. 


Currants 


do. 


Plum 


do. 


Cherry 


do. 


Apple 


do. 



Strawberries ripe 

Hay harvest commenced. 
Wheat do. do. 

First killinsr Frost 

First fall of Snow 



Mean Date. 



May 1 

2* 

" 4 

6 

7 

" 15 

June 12 

July 18 

" 2.5 

Sept. 23 

Nov. 5 



No. of Localities. 



48 
57 
58 
52 
52 
59 
58 
34 
45 
57 



No. (if ObseTvauuns 



168 
175 
269 
264 
250 
374 
210 
127 
186 
471 
536 



* As the Peach does not grow in the northern part of the Slate, this date must be considered the mean 
for the southern and middle parts only, and hence is too early as compared with other trees. 



The blossoming of the apple tree in the grazing regions of New-York 
takes place when the leaves of the forest trees are considerably less than 
half grown, as Mr. B. found them on the " high mountain trees " of North 
Carolina on the 12th of May. 

Snow storms sometimes occur in New-York as late as the one recorded 
by Mr. B. cm the Roan ; cold, damp fogs are not found destructive to 
sheep in some parts of England and Scotland, where they prevail proba- 
bly quite as much as on these mountains ; and there are many parts of the 
grazing region of New-York, and good grazing lands, too, where the in- 
habitants " do not raise com sufficient for their own consumption." As 
Mr. B. gives neither the dates nor the altitudes of his own thermometrical 
observations, no conclusions can be deduced from them. Speaking of the 
region about Asheville, the more definite statement is made by him, that 
during the summer of 1842, the thermometer ranged generally from 70 to 
85 degrees, (which he pronounces not much, if any, warmer than Western 
I New- York,) " while on the mountains it was frequently about 60 degrees, 
land sometimes much lower." If hj frequent, he meant ordinary temper- 
lature, the summer climate of these lofty mountains much resembles that 
I of New-York in June — usually considered the month of the pleasantest 

* This table was prepared by James H. Coffin, a tutor in Williams College, from the Report of these 
I facts annually required to be made by the Academies to the Regents of the University. Tliis and some 
I other tables and statements of Mr. C.'s, which I shall have occasion to quote, appear in a very able paper 
1 from him on the Climate and Temperature of New-York, in the forthcoming volume on Asriculture, in 
I the Natural History of the State : some sheets of which have been politely sent me by Doct. Emmons, the 
I £>tate Geologist, who has that volume ia charge. 

G 



50 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



temperature of the year — equally removed from the chilliness of spring, 
and the sultry heats of the last two summer months. But as the altitudes 
of the latter observations are not given, they present us nothing definite or 
tangible. A smart walk of a few moments up or down a mountain side, 
would carry one through a variation of temperature amounting to a degree. 
By the rule of Professor Leslie,* commonly adopted, 300 feet of elevation 
diminishes the tempei-ature 1° ; but the experiments of Humboldt, Gay- 
Lussac, and various other observers, have shown that this cannot be relied 
upon. One degree is usually equivalent to a greater ascent. Mr. Coffin 
(in the paper before alluded to) deduces the conclusion that in the State 
of New-York, the ascent necessary to decrease the temperature 1° is 350 
feet. Taking the mean of the range of temperature of Asheville, as stated 
by Mr. B. it gives 77^^ as the average summer temperature of that place, 
which, as will appear in the table below, is about 10° higher and warmer 
than that of New-York for the same season and year, (excepting on the 
beds of two rivers — the Hudson and Mohawk.) Applying the New-York 
rule to the region of Asheville, it would require, then, an elevation of some- 
thing like 3,500 feet on the mountain sides above that place, to equalize 
the temperature with that of the gi'eater portion of New- York. 

To show the entire accuracy of the subjoined table of temperatures, I 
would remark that it is founded on the Annual Reports of the Academies 
to the Regents of the University. The observations are therefore made 
by correct instruments, t on fixed conditions, and by scientific men. I have 
selected the points indicated in reference solely to a fair latitudinal and 
geographical distribution over the State ;| and to enable you to find them 
on the map, the name of the jjictcc, instead of the Academy, is given : 

TABLE NO. 6. 





Lati- 
tude.. 


EUva 
lion. 

40 


Temp 


er at lire 1842. 1 




June. 
64" 28 


July. 
72 16 


Aug. 
69 97 


Flatbush.. 


40'^7:j' 


Po'keepsie 


41 41 




61 29 


76 83 


71 56 


Albany 


42 39 


130 


65 85 


72 66 


70 23 


Potsdam .. 


44 40 


394 


59 62 


67 36 


67 12 


Lowville.. 


43 47 


800 


60 51 


67 52 


64 46 


Utica 


43 06 


173 


63 58 


70 15 


69 15 


iSyracuse.. 


42 59 




59 75 


65 77 


64 86 


Pompey .. 


42 56 


130fl 


57 70 


64 20 


63 50 


HomeF 


42 38 


1096 


58 88 


64 14 


65 67 


Itliaca 


42 27 


417 


63 80 


69 65 


67 74 


Prattsburg. 


.. .. 


1494 


56 83 


65 24 


68 71 


Rochester. 


43 08 


506 


60 66 


66 94 


67 35 


Wyoraini^. 


42 40 


800 


59 97 


71 50 


56 99 


Frertonia . 


42 26 


345 


63 42 


69 60 


68 71 


Lewiston.. 


43 09 


280 


62 05 


68 91 


68 50 



Near the extreme southern point of Long Island. 
On the Hudson. Elevation not given 



In St. Lawrence County ; north part of State. 
On the Black iliver 



Both in same county, but given on account of dif- 
ference in elevation 

In the southern or grazing region 

Do. do. 

Do. do. 

In the heart of the Wheat growing region 

Do. do. 

In the grazing region ; on the shore of Lake Erie.. 
On Niagara Iliver 



The five last named placcB are in " Western New- York." 

But there is one fact stated by Mr. Buckley, in relation to the lofty 
mountains of North Carolina, which, irrespective of all thermometrical 
observations, demonstrates conclusively, to my mind, their adaptation to 
sheep husbandry. This fact is, that white clover grows (of course, spon- 
taneously,) on them. Or perhaps I should rather say, that the mountains 
themselves become thermometers, their vegetation registei'ing, by a well 
settled natural law, their temperate climate. Says Malte Brun : 

" Under the buniiiis; climate of the toiTid zone, we have only to ascend the mountains, to 
enjoy the fniits and flowers of the temperate regions. Tournefort found at the base of Mount 

* Prof. L.'s rule, however, was only made applicable by him to tropical regions. 
■f Half, probably, of the thermometers in common use are inaccurate ! 

% Kor the records of temperatures given, see Report of the Regents, 1843, p. 240. For latitudes and ele» 
Vations of the Academies, see Report of 1838, pp. 212 to 215, and map. 



SHEEP HUSBAIVDRY IN THE SOUTH. 51 

Ararat the common vegetables of Armenia ; half way up, those of Italy aud France ; and 
upon the summit, those of Scandinavia. Forster saw several Alpine plants upon the moun- 
tains of Terra del Fuego." 

Mr. Mudle also remarks : 

" If we take each mountain as the index of its own meridian, we shall find that each one 
expresses, by its vegetation, all the varieties of climate between it and the pole."* 

Humboldt, and our ownDoct. Forry, notice an equally striking develop- 
ment of this law, on the Western Continent.t 

This would go to show what I have little doubt is the fact, (my impres- 
sions, too, being strengthened by a comparison of latitude, elevation, and 
recorded thermometrical observations,) that on the sides of the Roan and 
other lofty mountains of North Carolina, and pretty well up on their sides, 
too, the climate is not greatly dissimilar from that on the high grazing 
lands of New-York and New-England. On the sweetest and best of the 
latter, white clover always comes up spontaneously, and will immediately 
re-swai'd any field thrown out of tillage. It sometimes flourishes on soils 
of ordinary fertility, but never on very sour or boggy ones, or on those 
tbe poachy character of which would render them liable to communicate 
hoof-rot or other diseases. It indicates, most decidedly, both a soil and 
climate fitted for sheep. 

You will not understand, Sir, of course, that in the remarks made and 
facts stated, at so great length, in relation to three or four mountains, my 
object has been simply to refute the views of Mr. Buckley in relation to 
them. In a region of 70,000 square miles, the unadaptation of half a 
dozen mountains, or a nmch greater number, to this or any other branch 
of husbandry, would be of but little comparative importance. Anticipat- 
ing, however, the croakings of the timid — the exaggerated counter state- 
ments of those rash and sanguine men who are ever ready to rush into 
whatever is new, without judgment to guide or perseverance to sustain 
them : who abandon their undertakings at the first obstacle, and apologize 
for their ficklety by magnifying the difficulties encountered by them : I 
deemed it expedient to lay before you some useful data for comparisons, 
(and conclusions,) which will be equally applicable in the case of all our 
southera mountains. 

The hilly and level regions loest of the mountains, and lying between 
them and the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, scarcely require a separate no- 
tice — particularly after the statements of Mr. Cockrill, given in my second 
letter. As a whole, they are undoubtedly more fertile, and better adapted 
to the production of the grasses, than those of coiTesponding latitude, in 
even the hilly zone, east of the mountains. 

* Mudie's World. 

t Since making tlie extract above from Malta Brun, I observe the following better, or, at least, more defi- 
nite expression of the same fact by Doct. Forry : " In ascending a lofty mountain of the torrid zone the 
greatest variety in vegetation is displayed. At its foot and imder the burning sun, ananas and plantains 
flourish ; the regions of limes and oranges succeeds ; then follow fields of maize and luxuriant wheat ; and 
still higher, the series of plants known in the temperate zone. The mountains of temperate regions exhi- 
bit, perhaps, less variety, but the change is equally striking." See Forry 's Climate of the United States. 



52 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER V. 

PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.— I. DIRECT 
PROFIT ON CAPITAL INVESTED. 



Different points of view in which the question of the profitableness of Sheep Husbandry in the Southern 
States is to be regarded ... Direct profit on Capital invested first considered. . .Average prices of Wool in 

New-York Average weight of fleece — Price of Sheep — Increase in Lambs — Amount of Manure- . .Price 

of Land... Number of Sheep supported per acre. .. Estimate of the Expenses and Profits of 100 Sheep, 
taking average prices of Wool for the last fourteen years. . .Present low prices of Sheep — Causes — Esti- 
mate of Profits of 100 Sheep, at present prices of Sheep and Wool. ..Profits far below what they might be 
by breeding better Sheep- ..Writer's Flock — Annual yield of Wool — Prices sold at for six years — Statistics 

of Premium Flock Show that Wool can be produced at a large profit in New-York at present prices — 

Healthfulness and economy of substituting Mutton for a portion of the Bacon consumed in the Southern 
States. ..Economical advantages which Sheep possess over other animals — No risk by Death — Manure 
more valuable — Best clcarers of Briery Lands— Improvers of Vegetation. ..The cost of producing Wool in 
the South, compared with the cost in New.York. ..Number of Sheep which can be supported per acre 
South — Greater number than on land of the same quality North, by reason of the winter growth of grains 
and grasses in the former. ..Col. AUston's statement — R. L. Allen's — Col. Hampton's — Hon. R. F. Sirap- 
son's in relation to the Atlantic States south of Virginia. . .Price of Lands in those States. . .Winter Vege- 
tation in Tennessee, Kentucky and Virginia. . .Mr. Coles's statement — John S. Skinner's. . .Recapitulation 

Estimate of Profits on 100 Sheep South — Compared with New-York. ..Profits on the Southern Mountains 
...Doct. Brockenboro's statements — Mr. Murdock'a. ..Economy of Migratory Sheep Husbandry. ..Advan- 
tages for it in the South compared with those of Spain. ..Drawbacks on Profits of Sheep Husbandry — 
Dogs and Wolves.. .Their depredations compared with those in Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. .. 
Remedy. 



Dear Sir: In ascertaining the Profits of Sheep Husbandry in the 
Southern States, several considerations present themselves, apart from the 
mere question of direct annual profit or loss on a given investment in 
Sheep and in land for their subsistence. The more immediate and obvious 
profit is doubtless the first question ; but in regarding the general advan- 
tages or disadvantages of this branch of husbandry — particularly in a re- 
gion circumstanced in all particulars as the Southern States are — we are 
farther to consider the practicability and comparative economy of making it 
the basis of an effectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those 
which have been rendei'ed so by excessive and injudicious cultivation ; 
and its comparative efficacy in giving to Southern Agriculture a mixed 
and convertible character, and thereby sustaining (or improving) all the 
present good tillage lands, in the place of continuing the " new and old 
field " system — (tilling land until it is worn out, then abandoning it and 
opening new lands,) — once so genei'al, and even now by far too prevalent. 
And there is another point of no mean importance : whether, independent 
of preceding considerations, and even if the staples furnished by sheep 
husbandry proved no more profitable, in direct returns on capital invested, 
than some of the present staples, it would not be better economy, on the 
whole, for the South to produce the raw material and manufacture domes- 
tic woolens, particularly for the apparel and bedding of slaves, than to be 
dependent for them on England or Massachusetts. 

To ascertain the direct and immediate profit on investment in sheep hus- 
bandry, let us appeal to well settled facts and statistics, instead of content- 
ing ourselves with vague and general propositions. For the following 
Table of the average prices of good wool* in the State of New- York, which 
was published in my replies to Mr. Walker's " Treasury Circular " in 

• Such wools as are used for the manufacture of broad and other cloths of good quality — ranging, say, 
from Jth blood Merino to pure Saxon— e.\cluding native, grade (below Jih Merino), and all English wools. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



53 



1845,* I was indebted to a most respectable and extensive purchaser of 
wool, and its accm-acy is beyond question. 



TABLE No. 7. 



Year. 



Average ■price ■per puwnd. 



1833 40 cents. 

1833 50 do. 

1834 45 do. 

1835 48 do. 

1836 54 do. 

1837 30 do. 

1838 36 do. 



Year. 



Average price perpouiid. 



1839 50 cents. 

1840 33 do. 

1841 35 do. 

1842 30 do. 

1843 b'l do. 

1844 40 do. 

1845 32 do. 



It will thus be seen that for a period of fourteen years preceding 1845, 
the average price of good wools was 39y cents per pound.T 

The average weight of fleece in sheep yielding this wool has been about 
3 lbs. ; the pure-blood Saxons less ; but those bearing the coarsest wool 
included, in the average, more. 

The average price of sheep of the quality under consideration, has been 
not less than $2 per head in the fall, and lambs half that price.| The an- 
nual increase in lambs would be about 80 per cent., or if less by reason of 
the number of wethers in the flock, the growth of the latter would give a 
corresponding increase in profit. One hundred sheep, properly littered, 
will make at least forty loads of manure during the one hundred and fifty 
days during which they are confined to dry feed, in our Northern 
winters. 

The grazing lands of New- York, cut up as they are into small farms,|| 
and each being provided with dwelling and farm buildings, are worth 
fi"om $15 to $30 per acre. Prime sheep lands will average about $20. § 

In relation to the amount of land necessary to support a given number 
of sheep, the experience of a good many years has satisfied me that the 
rule commonly laid down on the grazing lands of New- York and New- 
England, that, on the average, one acre of land will give subsistence to 
three fine-wooled sheep throughout the year, is an accurate one.^ On 
gi'ain farms, it is considered good economy to keep one sheep for every 
acre of cleared land which the farm contains ; on those where mixed 
husbandry is practiced, two ; and, on those exclusively devoted to sheep, 
three. 

In the following, and all similar estimates, I shall reckon the profits on 
the land and expenditures, instead of the land and the commonly quoted 
prices of grass, hay, &c., consumed. These prices, in the interioi', are 

' .*e(! Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1845, p. 461. I fhousht, and so stated to Mr. Walker, that 
the Table placed wools about \k cents per pound too high. But subsequent information has convinced me 
that I was in error. In my statement of the average profits of sheep husbandry, in those replies, I estima- 
ted the average price of wool by the prices paid by a local and much smaller purchaser, and for a com- 
paratively limited term of years. I was not then aware of the utter defectiveness of the U. S. Census re- 
tunis (pointed out in Letter II.) in relation to the annual product of wool, and therefore was misled in the 
average weight of fleeces ; and, speaking from impression rather than experiment, I placed the value of 
the manure altogether too low. Those questions and replies have led me into experiments and inquiries, 
which have resulted in more accurate information. I allude to this subject, because I think it every man's 
duty to correct any errors or explain any discrepancies subsequently discovered by him, in his statements 
which have been thrown before the public, and thus are placed in a position to mislead. 

t During 1846 it was from 30 to 32 cents per pound, but as this estimate is not based on extensive pur- 
chases, like the preceding, I have not placed it in the table. 

I Including grade sheep, which form the greatest proportion of the whole number. There have been 
very few pure-blood Merinos in the State, and many of the Saxon flocks have been so miserably deterio- 
rated in carcass and weight of Heece. that they have sold for low prices. But good Saxons sold much 
above this until within three or four years : since then, the Merinos have been rapidly driving out the 
Saxons, and those of good quality and undoubted pedigree have sold for fiom five to twenty-five times as 
much. The higher the price, the greater the profits, by reason of the value of the increase. 

II It would be my impression that the farms in the grazing regions do not, on the average, exceed 130 
acres each. 

§ Id est, in the grazing region. 

tT I say " fine-wooled sheep," because the larger and coarser Downs, Leicesters, Cotswolds, &c. consume 
much more, as will hereafter be shown. 



64 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



merely nominal, as they cannot be obtained for beyond a small portion of 
the annual crop. They do not, therefore, form a proper basis for coiTect 
general estimates. 

The expenses and losses in keeping sheep, not already alluded to, are 
all set down below, as high as they will average on well managed farms. 



Or. 



$ cts. 

100 t'liecp to interest on purchase money 1"! 00 

To int. on 33^ acres ot'land at .$iiO per aoe 4fi fi(j 

" curing and storing hay onllacresof above. 13 75 

" expense of shearing 4 00 

" ealt, tar and summer care , . . 4 00 

" labor of foddering, &c., during winter, say. 5 00 
" loss by death 2 per cent, above the value of 

pulled wool 4 00 

Total "$9T41 



$ cts. 



By 30U lbs. of Wool, at 39 4-7 cts per Ib.llK 71 3-7 

•• 80 lambs at 81 per head 80 00 

" 40 2horse loads of winter manure at 

50 cents per load 20 00 

" summer manure, calling it only equal 

to shearing aud summer care* 8 00 



Total. 



.$-.>26 71 3-7 



Balance $135 30 3-7 



Making the net profit of $4 05, or 20^ per cent, per acre on lands • 
worth S20. 

Since the passage of the Tariff of 1846, there has evidently been a panic 
among the wool-growers of New- York, and the rise in bread-.stuffs, beef, 
j^ork, and dairy products, occasioned by the change in the British Tariff, , 
and the famine which has prevailed in Europe by reason of the short crops i 
of 1846, has tended farther to depreciate sheep, by oft'ering inducements ' 
supposed to be very strong, to embark in branches of husbandry furnish- 
ing the former staples.t Sheep are consequently cheaper than they ever \ 
were before. Prime grade sheep, bearing wool of as good quality as the ' 
average of that embraced in Table 7, have in some instances sold for ten ' 
shillings per head, and coarse common sheep for one dollar — lambs half a [ 
dollar — making, in the ordinary propoition between lambs and grown ( 
sheep, about 75 cents per head, taking a flock through ! j 

Wool of the quality embraced in Table 7 has fallen to an average of say 1 

31 cents. Under the impression that sheep and wool have reached their ' 

minimum prices, | it becomes an interesting subject of inquiry whether ; 

they can yet be produced, at a profit, in New-York. The following figures^ j 

I think, will fairly show : | 



Dr. 



$ f-i.s. 



100 Sheep, to interest on purchase money, at 

$1 25 per head 8 75 

To int. on 33| acres of land at $00 per acre.. 46 66 
" cuttins, curing and storing hay on 11 acres 

of above 13 75 

" expense of shearing 4 00 

" tar, salt and summer care 4 00 

" labor of foddering, &c. during winter, say. 5 00 
" loss by death 2 per ct. above the value of 

pulled wool 2 50 



Total $84 66 



Cr. 



$ rts. 



By .300 lbs of Wool, at 31 cents per pound. . .93 00 

" 80 lambs, at 6AV cents ])0r head 50 00 

" 40 2-horse loads of winter manure, at .50 

cents per load 20 00 

" summer manure, calling it only equal to 

shearing and summer care 8 00 

Total $171 00 



Balance «86 341 



Making $2 59, or nearly 13 per cent.nef profit per acre on lands worth $20, 
In the preceding estimates I have only regarded the profit of sheep hus- 
bandry, as it has averaged for a series of years, among those possessing 
good ordinary flocks. 

* I place the summer manure, undoubtedly, considerably below its actual value. No experienced fanner 
will say that good solid shi^ep manure is worth less than 50 cents per load, and as the summer manure a 
at least equal in quantity, and is deposited immediately on the land, 1 see no reason why it is not equally 
valuable. 

t That the diminution of English duties on these staples will give them a better and steadier market, there 
can be little doubt ; but not the nary kigh one of the past season, occasioned by the severe famine which 
has prevailed in many parts of Great Britain. Many, therefore, who have sacrificed their sheep, reckoning 
on such prices, will probably find that they have "reckoned without their host." 

X 1 say this under the decided impression that our wools, at this price, if properly washe.d and put up, 
would triumphantly compete in the foreign markets with those of the wool-arowing nations of Europe ; 
and even with those of Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and other Austro.oriental regions. For a more 
full examination of this point, see Appendix D. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH, 55 

' It falls far short of that realized by breeders and flock-masters, who 
started their flocks with the best pure-blood sheep then to be found in the 
country ; and who have subsequently continued to improve them by great 
care in breeding, and by a rigorous course of selection. 

I have bred Merino sheep for a number of years, and latterly in consid- 
erable numbers ; and in no case have my grown sheep averaged less than 
5 lbs. of well washed wool per annum. The quality of the wool may be 
inferred from a comparison of the prices at which it has sold, with those in 
Table 7. In 1846, I sold for 35 cents per pound ; m 1845, for 331 cents ; 
in 1844, for 48 cents ; in 1843, for 33^ cents ; in 1842, for 35 cents, and 
so on. 

To give more precise data, I select the following statement of the pro- 
ducts of a flock, on which I drew the first premium oflered by the New- 
York State Agricultural Society for " the best managed flock of sheep," 
in 1844 : 

[From the Transactions of the N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 1844, p. 254.] 

" In the winter of 1343-4, I wintered in a separate flock fiftj'-one ewes over one year 
okl, twQ-ewe lainbs, two rams, one oftliem one and one of them two years old. Of llie ewea 
over one year old, twenty-eight were lull-blood Merinos ; twenty-three were hall-blood Me- 
rinos and hall-blood South-Downs ; the two ewe lainbs ^^"el•e three-fotirth-blood Merino and 
one-l'onrth-blood South-Down ; and the two rams were full-blood Merinos. The flock were 
ke[)t as follows through the winter: They were fed hay morning and night, and were, as a 
general rule, required to eat it up clean. At noon the flock were daily led three bundles of 
oats and barley (which had grown mixed, say three parts oats and one part barley,) imtii 
the 25th of December — after which they received four bundles of oats. The grain was 
light and shrunken. They received no hay at noon diu'ing the winter, and usually consumed 
all the straw of the grain fed them. They had a good shelter, and access to pure water at 
all times. From this flock I raised fifty-tliree lambs. The full-blood Merinos, including 
two rams, and the two three-fourth-blood lambs, (in all thirty-two,) sheared one hnndi-ed 
and eighty-si.N: pounds and four ounces of washed wool, which I sold at linty -eight cents per 
pound. Four of the full-bloods had two years' fleeces on. The half-blood Merinos and 
half-blood South-Downs (twenty-three) sheared eighty and one-half pounds of washed wool, 
seventj'-one pounds ol' which I sold at thirty-eight cents per pound. During the summer of 
1844, the flock were kept in good ordinary pasture, and salted once a week." 

Thus, the Merino fleeces averaged 5 lbs. 131 oz. and sold for $2 79-| each ; 
and the grades between Merino and South-Down averaged 3 lbs. 8 oz. to 
the fleece, and sold for $1 33 each. 

It will be observed that four of the full-bloods (they were ewes) had 
two years' fleeces on. A two years' fleece will not weigh as much as two 
single years' fleeces from the same sheep. On the average, it will weigh 
about three-quarters as much.* On the other hand, the lot included two 
three-quarter-blood lamb fleeces, which would fall below the average 
weight of the others, and a portion of the flock were yearlings and two- 
year olds. The Merino never attains its maximum weight of fleece before 
three years old, and ordinarily not until four, and therefore the aggregate 
weight of wool of the 32 sheep, given above, does not, to say the least of 
it, give too favorable a view of the product of sheep of this quality. This 
is proved by the fact that my entire flock of full-bloods sheared about 
three-twentieths of an ounce over six pounds each, the succeeding year. 

It would give me great pleasure to subjoin similar statistics of other 
carefully bred flocks, were authorized statements of them in my posses- 
sion, or published within my knowledge. 

It is sufficiently apparent from the above facts and estimates, that wool 
has not yet reached the lowest point at which it can be produced at an 
ample profit, on lands of the value indicated, if the sheep are of the frofer 

* That is to say, if the single years' floeces would equal B lbs. each, a two years' fleece, insteid of wfigh- 
ing twice as much, or 12 lbs., will not exceed three-quarters a{ such aggregate weight, or 9 Iba. The wool 
wastes when it becomes so long, and perhaps does not grow so rapidly. 



56 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

quality ; and these facts farther suggest the expediency of relying on our 
own efforts to " protect " this interest, rather than the fickle support of j 
National legislation. 

For the production of a cheap, wholesome, and highly nutritious food, 
no animal excels the sheep. Theoretical considerations, as well as exper- 
iment, show the superiority of mutton to pork in the formation of vigor- 
ous muscle ;* and its tendency is less, particularly in hot climates, to en- 
gender inflammatory and putrid diseases. The consumption of consider- 
able quantities of fat is indispensable, in cold climates, to supply the 
necessary amount of carbon to support " combustion," as Liebig terms it, 
in the lungs, or, in other words, to maintain the animal heat. Hence the 
Laplander and the Esquimaux find a grateful diet in train-oil, or the adi- 
pose parts of Arctic fish and mammalia. That fat pork should be the i, 
favorite meat, in the Northern States, is not perhaps so singular, but that ^ 
it (under the name of bacon) should constitute the principal one consumed ^ 
in our wai'm Southern latitudes, and especially that it should constitute so t 
large a proportion of all the food consumed,! is indeed a most anomalous \ 
fact, and is utterly unparalleled among the practices of other nations occu- j 
pying the same latitudes. The tendency of this practice to produce dis- ^ 
ease, physical inertia, indisposition and incapacity to sustain continued | 
activity, will not, I think, be questioned by the jjathologist or the close | 
observer. i 

Mutton and lamb are a favorite, if not the favorite food of the English j 
of all classes. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written of the 
" roast beef" of" Old England," miitton is more eaten there by people of 
every rank.| On the other hand, it is evidently not a favorite meat in the ■ 
United States, though its proportionable consumption is evidently increas- , 
ing. Whence the difference % Circumstances have led to habit, and habit, , 
in a great measure, regulates appetite. It needs no other proof than is , 
to be found in the experience of every individual, to show that the appo 
tite is readily trained to relish what was even positively disgusting, and to i 
become indifferent to what was once the most grateful. 

That the preceding facts are well worthy of attention among those who :i 
are favorable to the introduction of sheep husbandry, among planters who 'i 
supply not less than 3 lbs. per week of good bacon, or a full equivalent, to j 
each slave, on plantations where the number ranges from ten to one hun- ' 
dred, and sometimes many more, there can be little doubt. Twenty-five , 
slaves would thus consume 3,900 lbs. of bacon per annum ; and the more j 
common allowance of the opulent planter is about 200 lbs. per head, or \ 
5,000 lbs. for twenty-five. If an equivalent for at least half of this was ' 



* The theoretics! considerations will be found sufficiently discussed in Liebis's " Animal Chemistry." For 
experimental evidence, I know of none that can be more depended on— which approaches any nearer 
actual dHmonstration — than that which is furnished by the English piize-tifihters. To Httain the ju-oper con- 
dition to sustain the protracted and tremendous exertions of their brutal trade, their flesh must attain the 
hardness and toushness of whipcord, and they must, at the same time, maintain that physical elasticity 
(technically, " corkiness.") which adds a<:ilify to iron strensrth. These men, while training, are sutt'ered to 
eat little or no adipose matter, and not even the Iran o^ pork. Their animal food is exclusively beef or 
mutton, or both. Some trainers prefer the former, some the latter. I have seen this matter very fully al- 
luded to, but do not now remember any more explicit authority than that contained in the following note 
to Carpenter's Principles of Human Physiology, (p. .157.) 

" The method of training employed by Jackson, (a celebrated trainer of prize-fighters in modem times,) 
as deduced from his answers to que.stioiis put to him by John Bell, was to begin on a clear foundation by 
an emetic and two or three purses. Beef and mutton, the lean of fat meat being preferred, constituted the 
principal food; veal, lamb and pork were said to be less di^'estible ('the last purges some men'\ Fish 
was said to be a ' watery kind of diet ;' and is employed by jockeys who wish to reduce vveight by sweat- 
ing." 

T I mean this portion of the remark to apply more particularly to the non-laboring classes. The propor- 
tion consumed by the slave, though ample, is not excessive, when his laboring habits are taken into con- 
sideration 

J I state this on the authority of vaiious individuals who have been much in England, and who have 
been placed in positions to form a pretty accurate opinion. Mr. Col man speaks of the "extraordinary" 
consumption of mutton in England, without, however, giving any comparative data. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 57 



made in mutton, it would be far cheaper, and, if I have not erred in previ- 
I ous statements, better for the slave. 

I There are two or three other highly favorable considerations to be taken 
I into account among the direct profits of rearing sheep. 
I The risk by death, by ordinary causes, is nothing. Two per cent, is al- 
' lowed in the preceding estimates, as the full product of wool and increase 
is earned out. But, in reality, the sheep never dies " insolvent." If the 
colt or the bullock dies on our hands, after two or three years of trouble 
and expense with it, the loss is nearly a total one. If the flne-wooled 
sheep dies at any age, the wool then on it, or what it has already produced, 
more than covers all the cost which it has ever made us.* 

Not only is the winter manure of the sheep superior to that of any other 
domestic animal, the hog and fowl excepted, but it practically becomes 
still more so in proportion, in summer, when scattered over the pastures, 
by reason of the conditions in which it is deposited. The soft porous ex- 
crements of the cowt or horse, exposed to the exsiccating action of sun and 
wind, evolve most of their fertilizing properties into the atmosphere, and 
this effect would increase in proportion to the warmtli of the climate. The 
excrements of the sheep, on the other hand, are deposited in small, hard, 
rounded pellets, which fall down between the leaves of the grass, and are 
thus in a great measure protected from the sun and wind, until they are 
trodden into and incorporated with the soil.| Then, again, they need no 
spreading,|| like the dung of the horse and cow. And finally, instinct, in 
leading the sheep almost invariably to seek the summits of the elevations, 
in warm weather, for its night quarters, leads it to deposit much more ma- 
nure in proportion, where it is most needed, on the drier and more barren 
hill-tops ; and where, being more remote from water-courses, less of its 
juices are liable to be washed away by rains, into the streams, or on to the 
lands of others. 

Sheep are also far more efficient than any other animal (if we except 
the woithless goat) in clearing up new lands, or neglected old ones, of 
those briers and shrubs which it is often difficult to eradicate without plow- 
ing; and they often abound on lands which cannot be plowed with profit. 
And, when plowed, the shrubs in the fence corners must be left (to the 
utter shame of all good husbandry), or the fence must be removed — some- 
times at a great inconvenience. The sheep delights to browse on the buds, 
and to strip the bark of most slirubs,§ and they thus soon destroy them. It 
would be good economy for the farmer to keep his neighbors' sheep, with- 
out charge, on all very briery oi' coppiced unarable lands, if he could not 
so stock them himself. 

Finally, it is generally believed by experienced flock-masters — and ob- 
servation has led me to fully coincide in the opinion — that sheep not only 
impi-ove the lands they depasture more than any other animal, but that 
they exert an almost specific influence in improving tlie cliaracter of th*- 
vegetation. All wild, poor gi-asses gradually disappear from their pastures. 



* I spoaU, of rniii-?e, ortlie post nf i-eavinc anrl fredins. 

t Gazzpvi fiiunil iliiit 100 purt? ofrecf^nt fow-ciimc contain 05 ppv rPTit. of dry, solid mntter, and that 5 pej 
cent, ol'iliis i* lust in 40 <layi-- liy t'xposure to the air. I do not think this indicates the full loss which would 
be sustained in a .coiiihrni latiimic. 

% These rounded pellets are covered, too, in the animal in good condition, with a coating of mucus, which 
farther protects them from evaporation. 

11 Their urine, also, is voided in quantities which render it hishly beneficial ; while that of the horse ."ind 
cow is voided in such large quantities in one i)lace that it is not only in a great measure wasted, but in a 
dry time (so that it is not diluted by the moisture in the soil), its rich salts, so far from benefiting, actually 
kill the verdure. 

^ This is particularly tnie of the blackberry or bramble (Buhrus viUosvs), and the raspberry (Ruhvs 
idnens), often great pests on new or neslected lands at the North. 8beep can even be made to attack the 
elder (Samhurns can n dm sis var. pvhtfcen?), and various other troublesome intruders, by turning them upon 
them in thawing " EpellB," in the winter, after they have been for some time confined to dry feed. 

H 



58 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. I 



and are succeeded by the best ones ; and the sward becomes remarkably 
dense and even. This is probably due to the richness and better distribu- I 
tion of their dung- and urine. ^ 

If upward of twenty per cent, profits, over and above all expenditures, i 
have been and still can be made, on lands worth S20 per acre, by wool- \ 
growing — on lands, too, where the reign of an iron winter confines sheep j 
to dry feed at least five months of the year — how are we to estimate those a 
profits on lands costing but a small part of this sum, which, though inferior * 
to the former, will, by reason of the shortness and mildness of the winter 3 
support about an equal number of sheep per acre, and also save the ex- 
pense of preparing dry feed, of foddering, and a lai'ge proportion of thai" 3 
laid out in barns, shelters, &c. 1 ' 

It will be seen that, by assuming the data of the last of the two preced ,1 
ing estimates (with the exception of the loss by death), the gross cost ot 1 
producing 300 lbs. of wool, on the grazing lands of New- York, is $82 16, e 
or 27|^| cts. per pound. This is undoubtedly as loiv as it can be produced *! 
where the fleeces do not exceed the average weight of 3 lbs. Let us now \ 
proceed to inquire what would be the gross expense per pound in the ) 
Southern States. i 

You inform me that " one or two — not more — " sheep find subsistence j 
during the sumn>er on the natural pastures of the tidc-icatcr zone in South j 
Carolina.* The broad-tailed, and other large breeds, now mainly fed \^ 
there, consume nearly double the amount of feed required by the fine- * 
wooled sheep. But, to make our estimate perfectly a safe one, we will I 
assu7ne that two fine-wooled sheep only will consume the summer herbage , 
of an acre. Fields of rye sown in September or October, you farther in- j 
form me, will support " two sheep and their lambs" per acre, " from the 
20Lh of December to the 10th of March." Numerically, then, here you ' 
have the same stocking that is borne by the lands of New- York, viz. three ^ 
sheep per acre. And, making the allowance already alluded to for the t 
different consumption of breeds, an acre would sustain three full-growo } 
Merino sheep. As the rye subsequently yields its crop, the wool is not S 
chargeable with the expense of its tillage. 

Rye will continue to grow in the winter on all lands not too sterile, oi ( 
too elevated, south of latitude 36°, and, in favoiable situations, at least •' 
two degrees farther north. Grass, and some other hardy esculents, also ' 
maintain a winter vegetation in many portions of the whole of this re- , 
gion.t ^ 

R. L. Allen, Esq., after a recent visit to the plantation of Col. Wade j 
Hampton, near Columbia, S. C, thus speaks of the winter verdure in that | 
region : | 

" Though everything like grass or weeds is rigidly excluded in the early stages of th« i 
crops, yet, as these approach maturity, the thick netting of crab and various other grasses 
and plants, which are ever struggling tor existence in this wann clime, are allowed to come 
forward and mature ; and their growth furnishes foi-age for cattle and sheep during the win- 1 
ter, and an impoi-tant addition to the vegetable manures for turning under and adding to the I 
fertility of the soil. . . . The sheep, together with the cattle, mules and horses, which 
are not at work, are turned into the natural pastures in summer, and, in addition to th'^se, 
they have the i-un of the corn-fields in wintt^r, and without seeing any other shelter agiinst ' 
the severest storms than a thicket or hill-side, they thrive and fatten throughout the year. — ■ j 
This condition is secured by the mildness of the climate, and the consequent gi-owth of vego 
tation during the entire winter." 

* I These statoments, and all others credited to Col. Allston, are, when not otherwise specified, contained j 
•1 letters from tlinf gi^ntlcmnti to the writer ] 

t Amoncj there, " a plant called 'Wild Rye.' aflbrdinq; excellent herbage durins the winter ninnth<i. springs J 
up epontnneously on the rice-tiold bunks, and buUveen ihe colton beds, oil some plantations on the River 
Congaree, S. C." , 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 59 

John S. Skinner, Esq. thus writes me :* 

" Col. Hampton's flock numbers 800, 1 believe. He kills the finest sort of mntton through 
out the winter and sj)ring — very fat and excellent in all respects. He told me last sunimei', 
at Saratoga, that they never get a inouthful except what they can find in the woods and. 
fields." 

Hon. R. F. Simpson, Member of Congress, of Pendleton, South Caro 
lina, thus describes the region in which he resides, and some of the contia: 
uous ones :t 

Henry S. Randali,, Esq. Washington, Jan. 22, 1847. 

Dear Sir : I take much pleasure in answering your inquiries, and only regret that I have 
not more time to do full justice to the subject. If my answers lail to inform you with sulfi. 
cient clearness on any point, I shall be most happy to add to them, at your suggestion. 

The Allegany Mountains, as you are aware, run from N. E. to S. VV. Tl)at part of them 
north of the S. C. line lies spread out in ditlerent chains or ridges to a distance of nearly .50 
miles ; and the whole region is commonly called " on the mountains." The climate is healthy 
and the gi-ass fine. Many of the valleys in this region are very rich, particularly on the wa- 
ter-courses. The ground is covered with snow as much as four weeks annually. The range 
is good, but there may be too much humidity for sheep. t The land is cheap, say $1 per 
acre — but much can be bought at .50 cents. I have leanied fiom good authority that sheep 
can be farmed out daring the winter at ten cents a head, in any ordinary quantity. The 
farmers who take them, too, will be liable for loss by death, in many instances. 

There is a strip of country lying east of the Blue Ridge, and parallel to it, from 20 to 30 
miles wide, extending through North and South Carolina and Georgia, which I think espe- 
cially adapted to sheep husbandry. The land is poor for the pioduction of our southern sta- 
ples, and is sparsely settled, but the pasturage is good. There is a perennial grass, known 
as " woods grass," which springs up in the woods after they are burned each winter, which 
makes excellent pasture for all kinds of stock. It starts vigorously in the spring, and sheep 
fatten on it by the middle of July. It lasts all the sununer, and provides sufficient iood for 
sheep during the entire winter, except when snow is on the ground, which is not more than 
two or three days at a time and usually not more than ten days during a winter. 

The few days during which the grass is covered up with snow are the only ones, during 
the entire year, when it is necessary to feed sheep. This is usually done with oats in the 
sheaf . . . Su])posing ten sheep equal to one cow, I think one acre would afford sub 
Kistence to three sheep. 

But few people mow here. In a few instances, herds-gi'ass has been sown and mowed, 
but the product not weighed, to my knowledge. Both herds-giass and the natural ones, ou 
our bottom lands, h)ok much richer, and to all appearance would turn off a heavier crop of 
hay than any meadows to be seen on the line of travel through Virginia. 

As I have before remarked, the land is ])oor, except the small bottoms on creeks and 
branches. The latter are rich, and will produce 30 bushels of corn and from 10 1o 15 bush- 
els of wheat per acre. They also produce oats and rye, but I do not know how mucli l)y 
measurement. I suppose from 10 to 20 bushels each. The land is valued low — Irom 50 cts. 
to $1 50 per acre — and it is only necessary to buy $500 or $1,000 worth of it, to embrace 
sufficient bottom to raise provisions, and oats to feed sheep when snow is on the giound. — 
The rangell is very large, and everybody's stock has liberty to roam over it, without hin- 
drance or compensation. 

Our common method of managing sheep is as follows: The flock are kept in tlie y)lanta- 
tion during the winter by some ; others turn out in the woods. In May they aie sheared, 
the lambs marked, &.c., and they are turned into the out pastures. ^Vhen they come up, 
they ai'e salted, and no other attention is paid to them until fall, when most persons shear 
apain. They are rarely brought up unless to get a lamb for the table. This Irenlment ren- 
ders them wild, and prone to jump into the ownei-s' or neighbors' wheat fields, fiom which 
they are driven out with rocks and sticks, and sometimes with dogs. They aie, in all re- 

* Jan. 15, 1847. , ^ ^ 

t This letter would have been more appropriately included in my Ivth Letter, but was not received m 
time, and it is by tar too valuable and inierestiuii to be omitted. 

t The eti'ect of humidity on fheep i.«, I think.'often misunderstood and gi-eatly exaggerated. Wet, cold 
soils are uncongenial to sheep, but they sutior no more from those ordinary fogs and vapors which prevail 
in insular positions, or which are attracted by mountain ranges, than other domestic animals. As has been 
before remarked, sheep thrive in the peculiarly foggy atmosphere of England— also in Holland. Their 
healthiness on mountains is proverbial, yet these elevations are usually subject to fogs, and clouds rest on 
the sides or summits of the loftier ones. As the southern mountains are cleared of their trees, their atmo- 
sphere will be less humid, and that soft vegetable mould (which excited the fears of Mr. Buckley) will ac- 
quire the consistency which it always does on a dry foundation, when exposed to the sun and air ; and it 
will be the means of' supplying the sheep with rich vegetable nutriment, instead of poisoning them with 

"hoof-ail." , . , , • .1, i- ^ 5 , 

H 'I'he provincial signification of this word. South, is the uninclosed pasturage m the lorest and "out 
^ fields,"— i. «., worn-out lands thrown out to commons. 



60 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

epects, treated more like outlaws than domestic animals. When out, all the flocks in the 
neighborhood mingle together. From their disposition to ramble, and the incursions of dogs, 
they get scattered, and scarcely any farmer can get up to the fall shearing more than oue- 
half of his count. 

The region above described includes Pickens, Grenville and Spartansburg, so far as this 
State is concerned. Going east of this strip, you at once get into good land, where the set- 
tlements are frequent. Here snow is rare, and wheat, lye and barley are used for winter 
pastures for sheep, and they continue growing during the winter. Wood grass does not 
abound m tliis region, as the woods are not kept burnt.* 

Very respectfully, yours, <fcc. R. F. SIMPSON. 

The preceding statements give a sufficient idea of the expense of feed- 
ing sheep in the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Gulf States. In all of these, 
there is a striking similarity in soils and natural products, and also in cli 
mate — with, perhaps, the exception of North Carolina, which is a trifle 
colder. In all of them, as well as in all the other Southern States, land 
can be bought at the same low prices.t 

The cost of the winter forage of sheep in Tennessee may be infen-ed 
from the statements of Mr. Kramer, (in Letter IV.) On even the lofty 
Cumberland Mountains, in that State, grass grows during the entire win- 
ter, and snow rarely covers the ground to exceed forty-eight hours ! Judge 
Beatty's statements in relation to Kentucky (in the same letter) show that 
the luxuriant blue-grass pastures of that State will sustain sheep during 
the entire winter; and that they frequently obtain their whole subsistence 
on the grasses, even on the mountains. Let us now turn to Virginia, the 
most northern of the Southern States. In a recent letter to me, John S. 
Skinner, Esq. says : 

" Hon. Mr. Coles, a Member of Congi'ess from Virginiai — a sedate, attentive and practical 
fanner — once informed me that his flock of 200 sheep, kept in good condition summer and ' 

winter, did not cost him $10 a year You must know that they, in the general 

way, as I believe, never feed their sheep, winter or summer, except where the ground is 
covered with snow — which is rarely the case, and then the snow does not lie more than a 
day, or at most two days. . . . No doubt winter pasture might be provided by sowing ' 
rye in the proper season (the usual system is to sow it tlie last tiling, and as long as the : 
farmer can *' catcli a chance") and putting tlie ground in good condition ; and in that way ( 

adequate provision might be made for any deficiency of natural pasture When 

the snow does cover tlie ground in Virginia, they give the sheeji corn-blades — an excellent 
fodder. I think the rule was w^hen I was a boy (in the j-are exigency alluded to) to give '; 
tliera a bundle of blades each. A bundle of blades compacted would be about as large as i 
the upper part of your arm." ^ 

North- Western Virginia seems to be considerably colder than the corre- ' 

sponding portion of the State east of the mountains; and the winter fod- " 

dering season is not greatly shorter — though the amount of fodder con- ' 

sumed mu.st be far less — than in Western Pennsylvania, or in many por- ' 

tions of Nnvv-York.|| Yet, singularly enough, more sheep are bred here ' 

in proportion probably, than in any other portion of the Southern States ! ' 

* Some other paragraphs from this letter are omitted for quotation under the heads of which they specif- '^ 
ically treat. 

t Hon S "Iron;:, n Member of Conjrre.ss from this (N. Y.) State, writes mo, after consnitntion with vnn- 

OU9 Soulheni Meinberi-, thai " good lands may be purchased for 81 50 per acre, and in great abundance, in i 
most of the Souihern Stntec." 

Mr. Garret \ndrow(>, of Wilkes Co., Georda, in a communication in the American .^gricnltuiist (April, ] 

1844), says : ">o\cr.Tl hund rod acres (in ilic, middle or hilly zone) arc often eold for a dollar or less per , 

acre. The usual rule is to pell the wood-bind for what it may be thoiiirhi to be worth, and give the pur- t 

chaser the old lands and the houses for nothing For $!T.000 or $l,.500, a comfortable honsc and „ 

out-hou'-es, garden, (fee. may be had, -vith teveral hundred ac7-es of laiid, . . wanlina; notbins; hut a fair | 

chance to become n» ft>rlile a.^ may be de-sij-cd. . . . 'J'here is no end of Iho mateiials for manure." , 

I reccndy s.^/ it plated liy a ger-|oman in a communication which wa« ■)ubli9hed in the N. Y. Farmer and t 

Mochani-, that he was authorized to ghc away good land in the Cumberland .Monnlains to .sober and iiidug- ji 
trious eettlci*. 

Th>' prices in the N C. Mountains will be seen fioin Mr. Clingman's letter, (Letter IV.) 

t Mr. Coles resided in Pitt-^ylvania, a county adjoining North CUirolina, in the middle or hilly zone. f 

fl .Icssc KoLMngton, of Ilolliday's Cove, Brooke Co , Va.. writes me : " Our averace time of foddering is ! 

at least 4 months, and \io generally piovido provender equal to 5 tons of hay for" each hundred grown ' 
Bhecp, for the winter." 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



61 



This region being essentially Northern in its characteristics no allusion 
will be had to it in subsequent remarks. 

It will be seen from the preceding statements that in many, if not most 
Situations, throughout the whole Southern States, sheep will obtain suffi- 
|cient food throughout the year from the pastures,* or from autumn-sown 
krains, excepting on the higher or more northern mountains. As has been 
[before remarked, as the grain subsequently yields its crop, its tillage is not 
properly chargeable among the expenses of producing wool. The prepa- 
i'ation of hay, and labor of foddei-ing, are also dispensed with. By the 
rule of estimation followed in relation to New-York, the items on the debit 
pide of the account would then be — interest on purchase money; interest 
bn land; expense of shearing; salt, tar, and general supervision ; and loss 
by death. The items on the credit side would be the same with those of 
New-York. 

I Your own statements, Sir, as well as those of Mr. Simpson, show that, 
in many situations, both in the tide-water and hilly zone, three sheep can 
be supported on the herbage of an acre, without other fodder. His state- 
ments show that such lands can be bought at " fiom 50 cents to $1 50 per 

ere." The annual account then would stand thus : 



Dr. 



$ cts. 



100 sheep — to interest on purchase money, at 

$1 25 per head $8 75 

To interest on 33J^ acres of land at $i 50 3 50 

" expense of shearing 4 00 

" salt, tar, and general supervision 8 00 

" loss by death 2 per cent, over and above 

value of pulled wool 2 50 

Total .$26 75 



$ cts. 



By 300 lbs. of wool at 31 cents per pound. ..$93 00 

" 80 lambs, at 62^ cents per head 50 00 

" Manuret 28 00 



Total $171 00 



Balance $144 25 



Making $4 32, or two hundred and eighty-eigJit per cent, clear profit per 
icre, on lands Avorth $1 50 ! 

By the respective estimates it will be seen that the gross cost of pro- 
ducing a pound of wool (allowing 3 lbs. to the fleece) is, in the Southern 
3tates, Sj-L cents ; in New-York 27|^f cents| — or nearly three and a half 
^imes greater in the latter ! I have put down the expense of shearing the 
same in both cases, and the supervision, South, twice as high as the sum- 
ner care, in the North. Shearing always costs Si a day, per hand, in the 
N^orth, and the summer care devolves upon the paid laborer whose every 
lOur counts. The shearing would not be worth to exceed $2 a hundred 
i)n a plantation where slaves are kept, and the supervision or care could 
'carcely be considered an expense, when it could be borne mainly, if not 
mtirely, by superannuated or decrepit slaves, or even by children. The 
•eal expense of growing wool on land of this quality and price would be 
ibout 5j^-2 cents per pound ;|| and calling the fleece 4 lbs. (which weight it 
ilways ought to be made to attain) it would but little exceed 3^ cents.§ 
This is above Mr. Coles's estimate of expense in southern central Vir- 
rinia, and Mr. John S. Skinner has repeatedly expressed the opinion that 
t could be grown in various parts of the Southern States at 3 cents per 

* This supply could be rendered far more certain and available, where desirable, by leaving a portion of 
he fields undepastured in the latter part of summer and autumn. This "fog'' or after-graes would not only 
itbrd much food, of itself, but it also greatly favors the sprouting of the young grass underneath it, by the 
rotection it offers from frosts and cold Winds. 

t 1 have put this down the same as at the North, because I suppose it is just as valuable at the South, 
nd quite as much needed. Few are disposed to appreciate the value of manure when it is not presented 

their view in bulk, as in the barn-yard ; but it is worth quite as much, dropped in the first instance 
ver the fields. I feel confident that I have not over-estimated its value either for the South or the North. 

\ To obtain these results, I divided the whole annual expense, as set down in the respective estimates, 
Kith the exception of the charge of 2 per cent, for loss by death, by the amount of wool produced. For 
easons already given, I do not consider the wool chargeable with such loss by death, except in an es- 
limate where the full product of wool and lambs is carried out. 
II In this estimate I call shearing $2 per hundred, salt and tar $1, and supervision nothing. 

1 § Estimated as in the preceding note. 



62 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



pound.* My own impression, however, is that the land, properly in- \ 
closed, that will support 3 sheep per annum, will cost, except in occa- ( 
eional localities, not less than $4: or $5, let the amount be more or less ; j 
and this would bring the cost of production (with 3-lb. fleeces) to between J 
7 and 8 cents per pound. I shall hereafter assume it to be 8 cents. * 

On many of the more northern mountains of the Southern States, and I 
on the high peaks farther south, neither the grasses nor grain grow suffi' j 
ciently to support sheep, unless the range is very large in proportion to . 
the number, during the winter.f Here, as in the Northern States, dry feed \ 
must be prepared for the winter subsistence of sheep. This can be read- j 
ily done, as the best meadow grasses of the North and the clovers flouu-ish j 
on the sides of the mountains.^ There is little doubt that sheep can be 
wintered on dry feed on many of the mountains, and yet, on account of ^ 
the extreme cheapness of the lands, the cost of producing wool not exceed {| 
eight cents per pound. ij 

In the circumstances of many of the lowland plantations, it would be ij 
a most economical arrangement to summer the sheep on the mountains, ^ 
and then drive them to these plantations to be wintered on j^asture, fog, | 
or grain fields, according to convenience. After the lambs have reached ^ 
a sufficient age in the spring, and the sheep are shorn, marked, &c., a 1 
flock mi.^ht be sent thirty, fifty, or even a hundred miles to its summer j 
range on the mountains, at a trifling expense ; and large numbers could i 
be kept there under the surveillance of a single shepherd and a brace or ^ 
two of dogs. By this system the lowland plantation would be saved from ^ 
maintaining pasture on more expensive lands ; many of its less marketa- j 
ble products could be converted into wool, meat, and manure ; and it i 
would be enriched by the wintering of the sheep. d 

Such, you are aware, is the system of sheep husbandry in Spain. The i 
sheep are wintered on the plains of Estremadura, sometimes reaching the J 
north of Andalusia. Both of these provinces, though in a latitude cor- J 
responding with that of a portion of the United States, extending from j 
Albemarle Sound to a little north of Philadelphia, are parched, during the j 
summer, to a state of arid sterility, by the burning winds of Africa.|| In „ 

* Pee Monthly Journal of Agi-iciilture. J 

t With sutiic'iem ransje. however, they not only obtain subsisfenne, but get fat. John S. Skinner, Esq., 1 
writes me : " In the mountains of Virginia, viz., at the Warm Springs, Dr. Brockenboro told me that a a 
flock of sheep which he had bought for use during the watering season, strayed, and got off beyond reach J 
during the summer ; that the winter after they were rarely seen : and that as chance ottered they were 
flint ; and that tiner and fatter mutton he never desired to see." The Warm Springs are in Bath county, 5 
among the Western or Allegany Mountains, a few minutes north of latitude 38°. 

X See Mr. Goufgin's statements in Letter IV. Since the above was written, 1 have received the following ' 
statements fvom'Mr. W. Murdock, of Asheville, Buncombe county. North Carolina : 

" E.Kcellent swards of grass are grown in this district from Orchard grass or Cock's-foot. Timothy and . 
Italian Rye grass I have found to thrive remarkably well. I never saw them do better in any country. I ^ 
received my seeds from England, and they succeeded admirably, and in ground by no means favorable to ^ 
a fair trial. Turnips succeed remarkably well here, and even 1 "lO miles farther south, as I am informed by g 

Mr. Kdward Calhoun— the kinds I don't know — but here the Globe, Aherdeen, Norfolk, &c., do well 

If crounds were reserved as you suggest, for the winter feeding of sheep, the fall growth being under- 
pastured, and If some of the stubbles were plowed up and sown broadcast with turnips mixed with rape 
or colza, very little fodder will be required, in fact only when snow is on the ground, which seldom ex- 
ceeds fifteen or twenty days during the year." [This fully confirms the positions assumed by me near the 
close of Letter IV.] 

" I think that Curled Kale would be excellent for the winter keep of sheep, or cattle of any kind. I got 
6ome seed from England and sowed it like any cabbace seed. I put out the plants two feet asunder in but 
tolerable ground. It grew three feet high and two feet in diameter. That I planted in the open field the 
sheep "ot at in October, and ate it, stock, branches and all, to the eround. That planted in the garden has, 
like the rape, stood the severe frosts uninjured. It is a delightful vegetable all the spring, and stands a 

wartA or a cold climate This and rape are. I think, all the green food necessary to keep sheep 

throusrh the winter, with the addition of a little hay. Rape may be sown broadcast in moist weather in 
May or June, and mown ott" for the sheep, when required, about six inches above ground. If the shoots 
are not required for pasture, let them go to seed, and the feed will pay better than any other crop, for 
making oil and rape cake." 

II Ile're is a notable instance of the want of correspondence between isothermal and latitudinal lines be- 
tween the west of Europe and the eastern portion of our own Continent. The two Spanish provinces the 
Htitude of which is above given, have a climate more resembling the scorched llanos of Caraccas than any 
portion, even the most southerly, of the United Statea. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 63 



the winter, however, they are covei'ed with verdure. About the first of 
May the sheep start for the mountains.* Formerly many of them rested 
on the lofty ^;ar(7?;^eras and mountain sides of Okl and New Castile — the 
Oatter bleak, sterile and craggy, compared with the sides of our own South- 
lern mountains. But a friend recently from Spain informs me that those 
once magnificent flocks (now, alas ! thinned by confiscation, t the whole- 
isale plunder of invaders,| and for the subsistence of adverse armies, ||) do not 
jat present stop in any considerable numbers on the Castilian mountains, 
Ibut pass north to the Cantabrian, and that portion of the Iberian range 
'north of Soria — or crossing the latter, spread over the Eastern Pyrenees, 
jand the mountains of Saragossa north of the Ebro. 

i Anything like an elaborate comparison between the facilities for sheep 
hiisbandry furnished by the mountains of Spain and the Apalachians of 
the United States, south of the Potomac, would, perhaps, be out of place 
in this connection. But a glance at them may throw useful light on the 
question of comparative profit. If the Spaniard can grow wool at a profit, 
where the natural and physical features of the country gives him no ad- 
vantage over us, we can certainly do so ; for in every other respect we 
have the advantage. 

' The Eastern Pyrenees rise to a hight of 10,000 feet,§ more than double 
that of the Peaks of Ottei", or that of any other portion of the Apalachian 
'range, with the exception of a few summits in North Carolina. Mount 
Perdu, one of the Pyrenees, is 11,283 feet in hight, ^| or 4,807 feet higher 
than the Black, the highest mountain of the United States east of the Mis- 
sissippi. Maladetta, Vignemale and others rise considerably above 10,000 
feet.** Glaciers exist on different parts of the whole chain. " The acclivity 
of the Pyrenees on the side of Spain, is often extremely steep, tt present 
ing a succession of rugged chasms, abiTipt precipices, and huge masses of 
naked rock."J| Minano, a Spanish writer of authority, in defending his 
countrymen from the charge of indolence, speaks particularly of the ef 
forts of the hardy peasantry on the " almost inaccessible mountains of the 
Asturias, Galicia and Catalonia." The vegetation on these mountains is ex- 
tremely variable, in some places being as luxuriant as the best on our South- 
ern Apalachians, but more fi'equently dwarfish and meager. On large 
portions of them it is entirely wanting. The northern acclivities are fre- 
quently swept by cold and piercing gales from the Bay of Biscay. On the 
whole, it will be seen that they do not compare with our southern moun- 
tains in the advantages which they offer for sheep husbandry. || |1 



* For sinarulfii- and interesting particulars in relation to their march, &c., and the municipal regulations 
pertaining thereto, see Livingston on Sheep, p. 36 et supra. 

t Some of the choicest flocks in Spain were confiscated by the Government during the great anti-fiallic 
struggle. In the winter of 18(i9, the Spanish Junto confiscated the great flocks of the infamously celebrated 
Godoy and several other nobles, and they were bought by foreigners for exportation. 

J The French Marshals, not finding anything in Spain to benefit the/)(e arts of la belle Frayice, as in Italy, 
condescended, it is said, to benefit her Agrlc.riUiire. by driving home soine of the best flocks of Spain. The 
Allied Armies compelled the restitution of the marble and ca-inms, but Ihosc priceless Jlocks either could not 
be re-collected, or they were not regarded as of sufficient importance to be returned. 

II The Commissariat of the English, French and Spanish armies, 

" The foe, the victim, and the fond ally," 
found the great Spanish fiocks a very convenient resort, and availed themselves of it fully. The Guerillas, 
contrabandists, and fugitive inhabitants, of course, did the same. 

§ Malte Brun. IT lb. ** Encyclopafdia Americana ; art. Pyrenees. 

ft Montserrat (in Catalonia), so famous for its monastic establishments, will occur to you in this connec- 
tion — where the steepness is so great that the monks ascend from hermitage to hermitage by ladders or 
stairs cvit in the rocks ! :ft Encyclopa-dia Americana ; art. Pyrenees. 

II II How much the associations of early life — early reading — dispose us to exaggerate even the physical 
extent of the region covered by these mountains, connected as tlicy are with so many romantic and inter- 
esting remembrances ! The whole chain, extending from Cape Finisterre to Port Vendres. docs not exceed 
250 miles in length ; and the space covered by it is not, in Western parlance, a " circumstance " to that oc- 
cupied by our Southern Apalachians ! Yet, in the western half of this chain, Pelayo and his successors 
maintained tlieir Visi-Gothic kingdom, overthrew the descendants of the Abassides and Ommiades, and 
linally wrested Spaia fi-om the Moorish yoke. Who remembers, without the map under his eye, that Ba» 



64 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The route pursued by the Spanish flocks fi-om, say, the middle of Es- 
tremadura to the Cantabrian mountains (the western portion of the Py- 
renees), cannot fall short of 300 miles. It equals 270 miles in a direct 
line. In addition to the length of the journey, they are compelled to cross , 
the Castilian mountains, and if they come from the south of Estremadura, 
also the mountains of Toledo. Their route to the eastern Pyrenees would 
be farther and still more difficult. Every circumstance, then, excepting i 
Tnunic'ipal regulations,* gives our Southern States, on both sides of the \ 
Apalachians, a manifest advantage over Spain, for the purposes of migra- J 
tory sheep husbandry. 

Before closing the investigation of the question of the direct profits of 
wool-growing in the Southern States, it is proper to inquire if there are ( 
any special local militating causes or disadvantages not yet adverted to j 
which should be taken into the account. Diligent investigation has satis- ] 
fied me that there are no such causes — on the other hand, that there is a i 
remarkable exemption froiji them — with one exception. That exception « 
is the destruction caused by wolves and dogs. 

Wolves are found in nearly all new, and particularly in mountainous ) 
countries ; but they invariably rapidly give way before the extension of ! 
population.! They have even now ceased to be very destructive in the \ 
most sparsely settled legions of the South. Mr. Simpson, in the letter be- 
foi'e quoted from, says : 

" There are but few wolves in South Carolina, excepting on the mountains. Otherwise, 
our sheep which roam at large uutendeJ by shepherd, and uncared-for by any one, would 
soon be exterminated. The wolves are not numerous even on the mountains. They are 
not so destructive as dogs, which every now and then attack and destroy the sheep. A J 
trusty shepherd, with a dog or two and a rifle, woidd prevent this." 

These remarks would apply equally well to nearly all the Southern ' 
States. Wolves do but little damage, and would soon cease to do any ; 
but the miserable, prowling curs are, in many places, a serious detriment. 
There is something singular in the fact that while so much complaint is 
made of them in the Southern and Western States, in New-York, where 
there is certainly a great surplus of them, we hear little, comparatively 
speaking, of their depredations. I am inclined to attribute it to the fact 
that dogs are here constantly familiarized with the sight of sheep. The 
first even playful movement of the adventurous puppy toward them is 
severely chastised, and he is thus educated to recognize them as within 
the category of " protected " animals. The dog which slays or even pur- 
sues a sheep, finds a long pedigree or a silver collar utterly unavailing to 
save him from immediate death.J 

But even in the South or West, the loss occasioned by the depredations 



nockbnrn was fouijht and Flodden lost to defend a Kingdom of half the dimensions of a good-sized Ameri- 
can State'. In comparing the agricultural capabilities— and especially in estimating the ultimate result of 
aariculiural competition between our own country and the European ones, we rarely take sufficiently into 
view the great disparity in territorial dimensions. 

* For the monopoly of privileges conferred on the flock-masters of Spain to the oppression and prostra- 
tion of every other bi-anch of husbandry, see Lasterie. and also Livingston on Sheep. 

t A bounty of $10 is paid for the destruction of every full-grown wolf, and $5 for a wolf's whelp in the 
State of New-Yo'k. 

X In New- York it is provided by law that every bitch over three months old shall be taxed $2 ; every ad- 
ditional one owned by the same man $5 ; two dogs over 6 months old $1 ; every additional one $3. The 
avails of these taxes constitute a fund, out of which Supervisors of Counties are to pay for any sheep slain 
by doas whose owners are unknown. This is not often enforced. 

Any person may kill any dog " which he shall see chasing, worrying, or wounding any sheep," unless by- 
direction of owner. 

The owner or possessor of any dog on being notified " of any injury done by his dog to any sheep, or 
his dog having chased or worried any sheep," must within 48 hours kill his dog, or forfeit .$2 50, and the 
farther sum of $1 2,') for every 48 hours thereafter, unless " it shall satisfactorilyappear to the Court that it 
was not in the power of such owner or possessor to kill such dog." Revised Statutes of New-York, vol. i. 
chap. XX,, title xvii. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 65 



of other animals, or the expense of guarding- against them, would be light 

compared with that in some of the wool-growing regions of the Old World. 

j In Australia, the sheep are exposed to the attack of wolves, dogs, and 

•; convicts, and are constantly attended by a shepherd, and nightly folded, 

and guarded by a watchman with dogs and a fire.* 

I At the Cape of Good Hope, the shepherd and folding system is also fol- 
lowed. In addition to wolves, and wild dogs which hunt in packs, and 
from their superior sagacity are much more formidable than wolves.f the 
Cape sheep are preyed upon by a variety of animals, and when they pass 
the mountains to glean the herbage which springs on the banks of the 
'streams on the vast and lonely Karoos, they are exposed to the attack of 
the lion, the panther, the leopard, and the whole Feline family, so abund- 
ant and so particularly formidable in Southern Africa.l And they have 
(had, and probably yet have, an enemy more destructive than all of these, 
in the Bushmen, more wild, irreclaimable, and predatory than their con- 
jgeners, the Bedouins of the Arabian desert. || 

I have seen it proposed§ to teach young cattle to protect sheep from 
dogs, in the following manner : Turn a few steers into the pasture with 
the sheep, and with them a cow or two, having young calves at their sides. 
Send a dog into the field, and immediately the cows, followed by the 
steers, will commence a furious onset on the dog, and gore him or drive 
him from the field. After this is repeated a few times, it is said the steers 
will suffer no dog to enter the inclosure. 

This might do very well under some circumstances, but I should prefer 
to rely on the remedy proposed by Mr. Simpson : the dog and the rifle. 
There are no " shepherd dogs " large and powerful enough to encounter 
and kill wolves and vagrant dogs, excepting the great sheep-dog of Spain ; 
and he is so irreclaimably ferocious to all excepting his charge, that he 
might frequently bring his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human 
life. My impression is that a shepherd dog or two, to be on the alert, 
and a brace of mastiffs to capture and, if need be, slay wolf or cur, would 
be adequate protection for the sheep on a considerable range, and the 
expense of maintaining them would be trifling. 

* Cunningham's "Two Years in New South Wales," vol. i. p. 251. 
t Missionary Eaabors and Scenes in Soiilhern Africa, by Rev. Robert Moffat, pp. 23-4. 
J The foUowiii'g stanza from the spirited lines of Freiligrath — " The Lion's Ride " — will occur to you : 
"And the vulture scenting a coming carouse, 
Sails, hoarsely screaming, down the sky ; 
The bloody hyena, be sure, is nigh, 
Fierce pillager he of the charnel-house ! 
The panther, too, who strangles the Cape-Town sheep 
As they lie asleep, 
Athirst for his share in the slaughter, follows ; 
While the gore of their victim spreads like a pool in the sandy hollows ! " 
II To these may be added the savage Kaffirs, who, in their recent struegle with the Colonial Government 
destroyed and drove ott' immense numbers of cattle and sheep. In 1834^ " the natives," says Youatt, " drove 
off or destroyed 80,000 cattle and sheep almost innumerable." 
§ By a writer in the American Agriculturist. 



66 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER VI. I 

PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES— 2. AS THE t 
BASIS OF AMELIORATION IN NATURALLY STERILE AND WORN-OUT 
SOILS. ■' 

Feasibility of rendering the naturally sterile and worn-out Soils of the South productive.. .Means must be 
ample aud cheap.. .Oruiuiiry Aniuial Manures from Stables, &c., not attainable in sufficient quantity — too ^ 
e.Npensive if transported far by land carriage.. .Animal Manures of Commerce still more out of the ques- 1 
tiou... Gypsum — not sufficient of itself.. . Wood Asshes — Leached Ashes — their great value, but limited 
quantity.*. .Lime (marl)... Swamp Mud— inexhaustible quantity of each.. .Valuable Etfecls of Lime on f 
8(>ils... Otherwise when there is a deficiency of Organic Matter.. .Opinion of Johnston, Brown, Lord 
Kaimes, Anderson, Morton, Thaer, Petzholdt, Chaptal.. .Southern Tertiary and Granitic Soils destitute of 3 
Organic Matter.. .Expensiveness of Marl— not very permanent in its eti'ects.. .The best Swamp Mud worth ) 
more per load. . .This, too, an expensive manure. . .Both too costly for extensive ameliorations. . .Is there, i 
then, any resort » —There is — it is to be found in a Mixed i^ystem of Green and Animal Manuring, the lat- ' 
ter made attainable by Sheep Husbandry.. -Experience and Testimony of various English Farmers under [ 
analogous circumstances... Reasons why Sheep are preferred to Homed Cattle for this purpose. . .Con- 
sideied more protitable in England, and by some in the United States, independent of Fleece. . .Singular \ 
Hallucination of Col Taylor on this subject.. .Sheep preferred as Improvers of Poor Lands in the North- I 
ern and Eastern States, but the end sought by ditierent means from those employed in England.. .The 
Knglish System — Reasons why it is inapplicable in the United States.. .System in the Northern and East- li 
ern American States.. .Proper System in the Southern States, on Lands now partly Grassed, and on Naked ' 
Soils... Green MHUuiiug — how accomplished — Proper Plants for the purpose — Practical Rules — Expensive- 
ness.. .Should the Pasture Lands of the South be exclusively devoted to Sheep Grazing? — Should not... P 
Home Demand should be supplied by Home Production, in the Staples furnished by all the Domestic 
Animals— Reasons therefor.. .As a surplus or exporting Animal Staple, Sheep furnish the one in which ' 
the tjouth can best compete with other Producers. 

Dear Sir : Let us now pass to the second point in reference to which ' 
we are to consider the profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States, i 
viz. : the practicability and comparative economy of makhig it the basis ! 
of an eft'ectual amelioration in soils naturally sterile, or those which have 
been rendered so by excessive and injudicious cultivation. 

The first of these classes of soils is confined, mainly, to the tide-water 

, ^nd 

How can these soils be profitably ameliorated 1 It is certlffi that this 
can only be done by the introduction into them of substances fitted to be- 
come the food of plants — or which, by chemical combinations or changes, 
prepare other substances to become such food. On soils naturally too 
sterile to sustain useful vegetation, the quantity of fertilizing matter intro- 
duced must be comparatively laige. Hence it must be cheap, or its cost 
will more than overbalance its advantages. There are various manures 
which separately, or in conjunction, would convert the worst acre of bar- 
ren sand between Richmond and Raleigh, or, if you please, on the Desert 
of Sahara, into a fertile garden, provided it could have timely rains and 
be protected from the burying sands. But it is utterly useless to argue 
the feasibility of this means or that, without at the same time examining 
its econom}/. 

The direct and profuse application of animal manures, for example, 
would probably effectually ameliorate any of these soils. But where are 
these manures to be obtained, in a region where the first necessary condi- 
tion for their production, ^. c. the vegetation necessary to support domes- 
tic animals, is wanting 1 The quantity accunuilating in the cities and vil- 
lages of a comparatively sparsely populated region — in a climate where 
the preservation of putrefying substances would be incompatible with 



zone. The second is found both in this and the hilly zone,^d, I need 
not say, in immense quantities 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



67 



health, would be inconsiderable. And whether more or less, it would not 
pay the cost of transportation to any considerable distance by land car- 
riage. Guano, poudrette, bone-dust, and all the expensive manures of 
commerce, are still more out of the question. Gypsum, on account of the 
smallness of the quantity requisite, is a cheap manure, and, reasoning from 
analogy, should be a valuable one, under proper circumstances, at least on 
the granitic soils of the South.* Mr. Ruffin states that it produces little ef- 
fect in the Tertiary sands.t It is considered by practical men to be, at 
the best, rather an aider of organic manure than a siihstitute for it, and 
when repeatedly applied without any other fertilizing substance, it ceases 
to produce any visible eflect. On an exhausted soil, the chemical consti- 
tution of gypsum shows that it could not replace all the substances ab- 
stracted by the plants ; and on one naturally sterile, there is small proba- 
bility that it would happen to supply the only deficiency necessary to the 
production of vegetation. Wood ashes constitute a most valuable manure 
on probably every class of soils, and. unlike lime, gypsum, soda, etc., which 
afford only a limited number of those substances whi(;h constitute the 
necessary food of plants, they afford in a greater pi'oportinn than any 
other manure the inorganic substances which are taken up and assimilated 
by plants.| They are used with the most beneficial effect on the granitic 
soils of New-England, the calcareous and aluminous ones of Middle New 
York, the silicious ones of the southern or gi'azing region, and on the Ter- 
tiary sands of Long Island. On the latter, of the same geological forma- 
tion with your tide-water zone — in fact but a continuation of it — even the 
leached or washed ashes bring a shilling per bushel (the same that is paid 
for the unwashed ashes by the soaper and manufacturer of pearl or pot 
ashes) for agricultural purposes. || But the supply cannot be made suffi- 
ciently large for extensive agricultural ameliorations, without a destruc- 
tion of the forests, which would inflict a grievous and utterly inexcusable 
wrong on posterity. 

The Southern Atlantic and Gulf States possess two natural and inex- 
haustible deposits of fertilizing matter, which, it is supposed by many, 
would be fully adequate to the general " reclamation "§ of their barren and 
exhausted evils. The first of these is the marl, which underlies large por- 
tions of the low country of Virginia and South Carolina, and probably the 

■* I refer here to the successful example of its use on the granilic soils of New-England. I have particu- 
larly specified this class of soils because your barren ones are limited to them and to the Tertiary. Gypsum 
is used at the North on nearly every class of soils with advantage — calcareous, aluminous, silicious and all 
intei-mediate varieties. It will be found very valuable, I have no doubt, on your mountain lands, particu- 
larly in localities where the clovers tloui-ish. 

t Ruffin's Aarricultural Survey of South Carolina. 1843. 

% To show the value of ashes as the food of plants, and at the same time the difference between those 
made from different woods, I append the following analyses of those of two well-known southern trees. 
That of oak ashes is by Sprengel, that of pitch-pine ashes by Berthier: 



Constituents. 


Oak. 


Pitrh-Pine. 


Coristrtuerits. 


Oak. 


Piich-Pine. 

14-10 
20-75 
3-45 
0-90 




29-95 

\ 8 14 

17-38 
1-44 


7-50 

11-10 
2-75 

13-60 
4 -.35 




1(5-20 
G-73 
3-36 
1-92 
2-41 

15-47 




.Soda 


Oxide of Iron 

Oxide of Manganese 


Pulphuric Acid 

Phosphoric Acid 




Carbonic Acid 





11 This fact I consider an important hint to the planters of the tide-water zone, and it is to be hoped that 
it is one which will not be thrown away. Leached ashes are valuable also on every other class of lands. 
The southei-n portion of my fai-m (lying on Chemung rocks") is silicious. The northern part is covered 
■with '• northern drift," and is therefore calcareous. I use from 3,500 to 4,000 bushels of leached ashes per 
annum, w-ithout any discriminaticn as regards the soil, and on almost every variety of crops, and invariably 
■with marked advantage. Doct. Emmons, our State Geologist, having in charge the volumes on Agriculture, 
Btated to me that he considered these leached ashes far more valuable by bulk than a rich marl taccessible 
to me) containing 90 per cent of carbonate of lime. 

§ This word ("reclaim") has a provincial signification throughout the North, when applied to land. It 
means " to render pioductive." Unlike the words "fertilize," " enrich." etc., it implies digree. as well «3 
manner. To •'reclaim " land, therefore, is to fertilize or enrich it to such a dcL'ree that it will yield fair 
crops. I fhall use the word both ub a verb and a noun, to avoid the circumlocution otherwise necessary 
to express this idea. 



68 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

whole Tertiary formation, or at least that portion of it extending through . 
the Atlantic States. The second is the swamp mud, which, rich with the j| 
alluvial deposition of ages, fills nearly every depression of the surface ca 
pable of retaining water, in the whole tide-water zone. 

Mr. Ruffin recommends the former as the best and most attainable fer- 
tilizer on both of the classes of soils under examination. He seems to ' 
think it adequate, of itself, to their full and permanent amelioration. I do 
not desire a word which I shall say to bear, or even seem to bear, a con- 
troversial tone toward the views of this ardent and enlightened friend of 
Southern Agriculture. In expressing my dissent from them, my limits ' 
and the occasion only permit me to allude to a few well-settled principles 
and facts on which I have based my opinions. Lime acts mechanically 
and chemically on soils. It stiffens loose and opens clayey ones. It is, 
to a certain extent, one of the necessary constituents of plants ; it neutral- 
izes acid substances in the soil ; it forms compounds, and promotes the 
dissolution of existing ones, to prepare suitable food for plants ; and some- 
times produces certain other minor beneficial effects. But its great, its 
chief object, is to produce the food of plants by its chemical action on the 
organic matter in the soil. Hence, says Johnston : 

" Lime has little or no effect upon soils in which organic matter is deficient;" and he far- 
ther says : " Under the influence of Hme the organic matter disappears more rapidly than it 

otherwise would do, and that after it has thus disappeai-ed, fresh additions of lime produce |i 

no farther good etfect; . . . it causes the organic matter itself ultimately to disappear." 1 

" It is scarcely practicable," says Brown, ' to restore fertility to land even of the best 1 

natural quality, which has been thus abused ; and thin moorish soils, after being exhausted \\ 

by lime, are not to be restored." i 

" An overdose of shell marl," says Lord Kaimes, " laid perhaps an inch thick, produces 5] 

for a time large crops, but at last renders the soil capable of bearing neither corn (grain) nor (j 

grass, of which there are many examples in Scotland." " The same," continues Johnston, i 

" is true of hme in any form. The increased fertility continues as long as there remains an i 

adequate supply .of organic (animal and vegetable) matter in the soil ; but as that disajipears, i 
the crops every year diminish both in quantity and in quality." 

" On poor arable lands, which are not naturally so, but which are worn out or exhausted ; 

by repeated liming and croppuig, Ume produces no good whatever." (Anderson, Brown, t 

Morton.)* '< 

Let us now turn to the opinions of some of the most eminent European ' 
Continental writers. The celebrated Thaer in his " Principles of Agricul- ' 
ture " (Section IV. Part I.) says : < 

" On no soils are the effects of lime so beneficial as on those which contain a great quan- 
tity of sour humus prejudicial to vegetation, or on those which have been supplied more or ' 
less abundantly with animal manure tor a considerable period, without receiving an appli- ' 
cation of lime, or some other substance of a similar natiu-e. In the latter case it is fiequently 
much more efficacious than an amelioration of stable manure would be ; but it soon impov- 
erishes the soil so much that in a few years it becomes indispensably necessary to manure it [ 
abundantly with rich animal or vegetable matters. As some portion of the humus, al- ' 
though in all probability of an insoluble nature, always remains in arable land even when it 
appears to be much exhausted, it of course follows that an application of lime will always 
be productive of very marked effects even on the poorest soils, because it will call into ac- 
tion all the nutritive particles which they contain. A second amendment of a similar nature 
bestowed shortly after the first, will be productive of some, although in general of much less 
benefit; and the effect of each subsequent amelioration of this nature wUl be progressively 
diminished unless the soil receives an additional supply of humus. . . . The effect pro- 
duced by lime on land of this nature (reclaimed bogs and marshes) is much more beneficial J 
and durable than that of any other manure. On the other hand, repeated ameliorations of j 
lime will soon totally exhaust and impoverish poor and sandy soils, and reduce them to ab- | 
solute sterility, even though each separate application seems to be productive of some good I 
effect. . . • Many persons who have not rightly comprehended the cause of the effects *■ 
produced by lime, prefer it to manure, and have believed in the possibility of doing entirely j 
■without the latter ; but the total exhaustion of tVie soil which such a course of proceeding '< 
must sooner or later produce, caused them to fly to the opposite extreme. ... An en- 



See Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 139-142. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 69 

lightened and scientific agiiculturist will soon perceive that the use of lime can never super 
sede that of dung, but that it renders this kind of manure more energetic in its action. . . . 

In many places where its ameliorating effects were known and appi'eciated. many agricul- 
tuiists have calculated that marl would prove a cheaper manure than stable dung ; and 
have, consequently, determined to do without the latter altogether ; and, therefore, have 
diminished their stock of cattle, and sold their hay and straw. It may easily be imagined 
that as soon as the chemical effects of the marl ceased to operate, as must be the case when 
the land no longer contained undecomposed or insoluble substances, the soil became steiile, 
and a second marling was incapable of producing any beneficial effects, there being no hu- 
mus for it to act upon." 

Petzholdt, in his " Lectures to Farmers on Agricultural Chemistry," 
(Lecture X VII.) says : 

" Quick -lime gi-eatly accelerates the decomposition of humus, whether of animal or vege 
table origin, inducing a more speedy liberation of its salts than would otherwise take place. 
This is the reason quick-lime has proved so advantageous in the cultivation of bogs ; the 
lime not only accelerates the decomposition of the humus, but it may be said altogether to 
be the cause of the decay of humus, which, as it exists in peat, is scarcely by itself under- 
going the process at all. . . . Where there is neither humus in the soil, nor undecom- 
posed silicates, the application of lime as manure will be useless. ... So much, how- 
ever, is deducible from all experience, that the mere application of marl to an exhausted soil 
is of no use whatever, unless it is carried on the field in such quantities as to constitute a 
new soil, covering the whole surface to the depth of a foot. . . . In a chemical point of 
view, marl is not of any value except where the soil requires a supply of lime. . . The 
other mineral constituents of mai'l are far too inconsiderable in amount to be reckoned upon." 

Chaptal, in his " Chemistry applied to Agriculture," (Chap, iii., Art. 2,) 
thus expresses himself: 

" It is acknowledged that lime is principally useful upon fallow lands which are broken 
up ; upon grass lands, whether natural or artificial, which are prepared for cultivation : and 
upon muddy lands, which are to be put into a fit state for culture. It is well known that in 
all these cases there exists in the land a gi-eater or less quantity of roots, which, by the ap- 
plication of lime, may be made to sei-ve more immediately for manure, by the solubility it 
will give to the new products formed by them. . . . Independently of this effect, which, 
in my opinion, is the most important, Hme exercises other powers, which make it a very 
valuable agent in Agiicultm-e." 

These authorities might be multiplied ad wfimtum. 

On the alternately too loose or too hard soils of the dry and barren lands 
of the tide-water zone, lime wovild doubtless have two salutary eifects — 
the mechanical one already noticed, and it would furnish one necessary 
food of plants. But of its power to render these soils, or the exhausted 
ones of the middle zone, anything more than transiently fertile, there is no 
probability, if they are, as I suppose them to be, generally rather, and 
sometimes very, destitute of organic matter. This destitution I infer from 
ocular examination ;* also from the fact that they are covered with little 
vegetation, with the exception of the long-leaf pine, to produce by its an- 
nual decay a store of organic matter; and, finally, if this organic matter 
existed in these soils in any considerable quantity, they would, not he ster- 
ile. They probably possess the ordinary inorganic constituents of dry 
Tertiary and granitic soils, and no properties directly deleterious to vege- 
tation. Organic matter, then, in my judgment, is what they principally 
stand in need of to render them fertile. Now, by applying lime to them, 
it would undoubtedly do good in two ways, as before admitted ; but the 
considerable temporary apparent amelioration, as evinced in some instances 
by the increased growth of vegetation, is factitious, for the lime is only act- 
ing with and exhausting the little organic matter in the soil, to leave it to 
greater eventual sterihty. Hence the saying that " hme enriches the father 
but impoverishes the son," is a true one when the hme is applied to soils 
possessing but a small proportion of organic matter. On such, lime soon 

* 1 have seen no analyses of these soils, and mean therefore as I say, simply, examination by the eye. 



70 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

leads to exhaustion, unless organic matter is added to the soil in proportion 
to the loaste. The theoretical and practical considerations which should 
govern in the application of this fertilizer to soils are discussed more fully 
and, in my judgment, more ably by Johnston, in his Agricultural Chem- 
istry, than by any other WTiter. To him I take the liberty to refer you. 

Marl raised from pits, as it must necessarily be (except when denuded, 
or cut through, on the beds of streams, &c.) where it occurs only as an 
under-stratum in a flat country — where the pits, too, often require ma- 
chinery, or much manual labor, to keep them free fi-om water while work- 
ing — must be an expensive manure. From its tendency to sink in the soil 
it is not so permanent a one as would naturally be expected. On reclaimed 
swamp lands — as, for example, on the rice lands — abounding in vegetable 
matter, it will be found a most efficacious manure, and, when needed, will 
repay the necessary outlay ; but I fear it will be found otherwise ultimate- 
ly, if not immediately, on the barren sands and exhausted granite soils of 
the South. Applied tvith swamp mud, it would constitute a fertilizer 
scarcely, perhaps, admitting of a superior, even on the latter soils. In 
their single effects, however, I cannot but believe that the best swamp mud 
— that which is black and fetid by the long continued accumulation of or- 
ganic substances (and especially if charged with shells, and the shields of 
Infusoria) — would be worth more per load than the richest marl. The 
mud, too, should be considerably cheaper than the marl, no deep excava- 
tions being required to obtain it.* Digging and draught, and, in the case 
of the mud, draught alone, would render both decidedly expensive ma- 
nures, relatively to the value of the land after being ameliorated by them, 
even assuming that amelioration to be complete and permanent. On lands 
immediately contiguous to conveniently reached depositions of mud or 
marl, on a scale so limited that it could be carried on at spare intervals 
without encroaching on the regular routine of plantation labor, it might 
be good economy to haul out mud and marl, and thus gradually reclaim 
small pieces of land.t It certainly would be better economy than to waste 
those intervals in idleness. But in anything like an extended and speedy 
system of reclamation — the fertilization of thirty, forty or fifty acres per 
annum, instead of one, two or three — the means above adverted to are, in 
my humble judgment, utterly out of the question. The labor would ab- 
sorb all the labor of man and beast on the plantation ; and it is exceedingly 
questionable, in my mind, whether the land, when fertilized, would sell for 
the cost of the manure. 

Hard would it be for many a South Carolinian or Virginian to turn his 
back on the Lares and Penates of his race — forgetting many a proud local 
and ancestral association — but as a question of dollars and cents, some- 
times a necessary one, and, at all events, usually the paramount one, I 
think it past a reasonable doubt that it would be better economy to de- 
sert the worn-out or naturally barren soils of our South-eastern coast, and 
purchase the virgin and fertile lands of the South-west (even including 
the extra expense of building and fencing), than to attempt to reclaim the 
former by means so expensive as those above indicated. 

What, then, is the resort 1 Are there any means by which those lands 
can be projitahhj reclaimed ] I answer. Yes ; and the resort is a mixed 
system of green and animal manuring — the latter made attainable by sheep 
husbandry. Experience is the best test of all theories. And we have had 

* I am inclined to think, however, that this mud, if spread directly on the surface, would contaminate 
the atmosphere with unhealthy miasma, generating agues and bilious diseases. If so, it would require in- 
corporation with the soil, by plowing. 

t It seems to me, however, that these expensive manures would be more profitably applied in keeping 
up the fertility of the best lands, or as as$i$taTita to other and cheaper means of reclaiming the poor ones. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 71 



:| BO little experience in the premises, in our own country, let us turn to that 
I of the first ag-ricukural nation of the Old World. There is no foreign na- 
I tion where so high a degree of intelligence is brought to bear on farming 
operations — where cause and effect are so carefully studied and accurately 
i| noted — as in England. This care and accuracy are indispensably neces- 
i sary in a country where high rent and heavy taxation render good farming 
I or bankruptcy unavoidable counter-alternations to the agriculturist. Pre- 
I vailing conclusions among such a class of agriculturists — undisputed con- 
': elusions, too — are assuredly entitled to great respect, and may almost be 
regarded as settled facts. Now the farmers of England are perfectly fa- 
miliar with every kind of manure accessible to our Southern farmers, un- 
less it be swamp mud and cotton seed. Lime, for example, is plentiful 
and cheap, and is much used in Agriculture all over the kingdom. If 
either this, or any of the manures of commerce, were considered, of them- 
selves, economical fertilizers of the poor, sandy or light upland soils of 
England, there is no country in the world where they are more plentiful, 
and, when the use of the soil and the price of products are taken into con- 
sideration, more cheap. 

What the settled conclusions of the English farmers are, in relation to 
the profitable amelioration of those soils, will be seen from the following 
undisputed testimony of some of the most eminent and respectable of them 
taken before the Committee of the House of Lords, charged with the in- 
quiry into the state of the wool trade, &c. in Great Britain, in 1828, from 
which I have so freely quoted in preceding Letters. 

Mr. William Pinkney, Salisbury Plain: Land such as T occupy could not be main 
tained without, the aid of sheep. . . . The sheep are our principal dependence for sup* 
porting our crops ; indeed, I could not occupy my fann without my flock. 

Mr. John Ellman, Jr., Sussex : I do not consider it possible for the light lands upon 
the Downs to be kept in cultivation vdthout flocks. I could not keep the fann I now hold 
without sheep. . . On the South Downs the wool must be giown, let the price be 

what it wiU. 

Mr. Francis Hale, Ahingham, Suffolk : The description of land I occupy could not be 
kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep. 

Mr. Henry King, Chilmark, Wiltshire : The size of my farm is about 4,000 acres. I 
clip annually about 6,500 South-Down sheep. . . . Such lands as I occupy cannot be 
kept in cultivation without the aid of sheep. 

Mr. John Woolledge, near Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk : An estate near the above 
place contains 8,890 acres, let to tenants, and consists principally of poor sandy and gravelly 
kind, the produce of which in grain is very precarious, amounting in dry summers to little 
or nothing. The occupiers, therefore, depend almost entirely on their flocks of sheep for the 
payment of their rents and the employment and support of the population. ... I am 
of opinion that two-thirds of the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk may be comprehended in 
the sheep districts, and that they produce two pounds and a half of wool, and three-fourths 
of a lamb, to the acre, upon an average. . . . The produce of the land depends materi- 
ally upon the folding system ; there is not sufficient straw for manure without the assistance 
of sheep. 

Mr. William Ilott, Abbey Milton, Dorsetshire : I calculate the annual growth of wool 
in Dorsetshire at 10,000 packs of 246 lbs. each. It is estimated . . . that 800,000 sheep, or 
one sheep and one-seventh per acre, . . . are kept in this county. A considerable part of 
the county of Dorset is composed of light lands, and can only be kept in tillage by the aid 
of sheep. 

C. C. Western, Esq. : It is utterly impossible that the Down Districts can be cultivated 
to advantage without sheep. We never fold our Merino or other sheep ; the land is too wet. 

Lord Napier : If we had not sheep upon our lands (the highlands of Scotland), it would 
become the habitation of foxes and snipes, and return to waste ; it would produce nothing 
but grouse and wild game of different sorts. 

Is it asked, Why are sheep preferred to homed cattle ? Many of the 
reasons are given in my preceding Letter. Then, again, the scanty and 
short pasturage of light lands, on which sheep will thrive, will not afford 
eufficient " bite" (as it is provincially termed in the Northern States) to 



72 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

profitably carry large stock. And, finally, there seems to be a settled con- 
viction among the English farmers that sheep give a better return for the 
food consumed, and tlierefore better repay the extraordinary expenditure 
necessary to bring poor lands in a fit state for the plow, than any other 
animal. In an able essay in the London " Plough" (June, 1846), the fol- 
lowing remarks occur, which may be probably regarded as an expression 
of the prevailing opinion in England : 

" It is justly aJmitteLl that, of all the domestic animals reared and fed for profit in Great 
Britain, shee[) are of the greatest consequence, both individually and in a national point of 
view, and atlbrd a better return than can be obtained either from the rearing or feeding of 
cattle ; the very fleece shorn annually from their backs is worthy of consideration. . . . 
Sheep husbandry deserves to be esteemed in all its diftereut branches, and claims the prior- 
ity of consideration among agriculturists."* 

The manner in which the "very fleece" is here spoken of, shows that 
wool occupies but a mere subsidiary place in making up the profits of 
English sheep husbandry. I know many intelligent and experienced fann- 
ers in t/iis country who think sheep feeding more profitable, or equally 
profitable, with cattle feeding, leaving the wool out of the account.t 

The experience of the English farmers accords with that of those of our 
own Northern and Eastern States, in relation to the superior advantages 
of sheep husbandry on poor and light soils. Observation has shown both 
that such soils do not profitably carry bullocks or other large animals, and 
that such animals are poorer manurers than sheep. But their methods of 
availing themselves of the advantages of this husbandry are entirely dis- 
similar. The English farmer finds mutton and grain the marketable pro- 
ducts which pay best. The first returns a profit on the crop (turnips) 
which produces it, and at the same time fits the land for the latter. The 
high price and ready sale of mutton allows the English farmer to force the 
growth of turnips on poor soils, by the application of highly condensed 
manures.i; In the fall the sheep are turned upon small patches of them, 
surrounded by an inclosure of hurdles. The turnips are drawn, sliced, and 
laid in troughs for the sheep. When one patch is consumed, the hurdles 
are removed, and thus the field is gradually passed over — the sheep con- 
verting the whole crop into animal products and manure. The land is 
theu plowed for grain, and a succession of crops are taken from it. By 
this means the land is soon reduced to its former level, and the same sys- 
tem is again entered upon. 



■* After reading this and the preceding testimony, one cannot look back without a smile on the unac- 
countable monomania of that excellent man and public benefactor, Col. John Taylor, in relation to sheep. 
In one of the essays of "Arator," he says: 

" My conclusions are that they require and consume far more food, in proportion to their size, than any 
other stock ; that they are more lialile to disease and death ; and that they cannot be made a protitable ob- 
ject throughout the whole extent of the warm, dry climate and sandy soil of the United States, but by ban- 
ishiuq; tillage from vast tracts of country." . . . '• It is probable that the hot constitution of sheep pro- 
duces a rapid digestion, and that insatiable appetite, by which the fact is accounted for of their flouiishing 
only, to any extent, in fine meadows or extensive wildernesses. If this voraciousness is not gratified, the 
animal perishes or dwindles ; if it is. he depopulates the country he inhabits. The sheep of r^pain have 
kept out of existence, or sent out of it, more people than the wild beasts of the earth have destroyed from 
the creation ; and those of England may have caused a greater depopillation than all her extravagant wars. 
It may be owing to this animal, the independence of one country is almost overthrown, and of the other 
tottering." (! ! !) He farther expresses the opinion that England, " by the help of her moisture and verdure, 
can raise wool cheaper than the United .States." (!) 

It would appear that Col. Taylor formed all his conclusions on a small flock kept by himself They may 
have been a bad and unthrifty (lock. But it is strongly probable that he was influenced by deep-rooted 
prejudices, imbibed before his judgment was ripened, or his experience formed ; and that these, unknown 
to himself, warped all his views. I can account in no other way for the evident and palpable hallucination 
under which he made nearly every statement in his Chapter on Sheep. 

t A gentleman who has been one of the most successful feeders of cattle and sheep in this State (P. N. 
Rust, Esq. of Syracuse) recently remarked to me in conversation that he had invariably found that sheep 
paid better for feeding than cattle. 

\ Bone-dust, and fiequently guano or some other manure with it, is drilled in with the turnip seed, so 
that much cost is obviated by making o little go a great ways ; and there is a remarkable congeniality in 
the climate and atmosphere of England to the growth of thia root. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 73 

•; - In the United States, much of this system would be inapplicable and 
tmprofitable. Here wool, instead of mutton, is the principal object. Even 
in the Southern States, where the climate would render the English sys- 
tem practicable, the expense of producing either of these articles, by win- 
ter turnip feeding and folding; would add so much to its cost that it could 
not profitably compete with that grown in the ordinary manner. The 
same remark applies to the relative expense of the two systems of manur- 
ing. A constant repletion of rich succulent food, like turnips, would sen- 
sibly increase the amount of manure, and, by folding, it would be more 
evenly distributed. But neither of these considerations would begin to 
offset against the increased expense, in a country where good lands are so 
cheap and bread-stuffs so low. Besides, no good, but, on the other hand, 
positive injury, would result fi'om thus armusllj Jhttcning "store"* sheep, 
kept for the production of wool and for breeding.t 

The system of improving poor lands in the Northern and Eastern States 
by sheep husbandry, is mainly by summer pasturage. The droppings of 
the sheep gradually enrich them,| and consequently increase their herb- 
age. Thus, in a few years, poor and scanty pastures are converted into 
rich, productive ones. This might be far more rapidly done by giving 
these pastures also the winter manure of the sheep, made in the feeding 
yards. But it is generally thought more profitable to give the winter ma- 
nure to the richer tillage lands, which are made to suj^ply the grain and 
hay of the farm. The light pasture lands are thus kept permanently in 
pasture, or are only plowed, by the provident, at very long intervals. This 
system is rendered necessary, or, at all events, convenient, by the topo- 
graphical features of our farms. Here the poorer and lighter are generally 
the higher and more broken lands, which are less convenient of ai-ation, 
and for the hauling on of manure, or the hauling off' of crops. 

In the Southern States, on lands which now yield even a smallish sup- 
ply of esculent grasses, the northern system is all that is necessarily re- 
quired. Those grasses will every year increase, and the land will be grad- 
ually fertilized, by the droppings of the sheep, without a cent's expendi- 
ture on it of any kind ; and every particle of herbage will be turned to its 
most profitable account, by being converted into wool, mutton and ma- 
nure. 

But where there is not sufficient existing verdure to form the germ, so 
to speak, of a future good pasture — or, in other words, to supj^ort a suffi- 
cient number of sheep to convert it, within a reasonable time, into good 
pasturage — some other course must be adopted. Proper plowing and 
seeding, simply, will, I have not a doubt, be found adequate in a great 
many instances where it would hardly be suspected. It is very natural to 
take it for granted that a soil, not spontaneously producing the grasses, is 
not fertile enough to produce them, even if properly sown upon it. But 
experience has amply demonstrated the contrary in several of the North- 
western States. There are various causes, besides a want of fertility, 
which may produce such nudity; but this is not the place to enter upon 
speculations on this topic. Two very common and obvious causes are too 
great looseness or compactness of the surface, which prevents seeds from 
taking root, especially in a dry, hot 'climate. Plowing would always loosen 



* This convenient word is provincially applied, in the Northern and Kastera States, to sheep and ewine 
which are to be kept over the year, to breed from (and the former to produce wool), as contradistinguished 
from those which are fattening for slaughter. 

t This point will again be adverted to. It is sufficient now to say that breeding-ewes, if brought to a high 
Btate of fatness, raise fewer lambs. The lambs are bom weak, and are very apt to perish. There are alee 
other objections. 

X Aided by an occasional top-dressing with gypattm. 

K 



74 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

hard, and frequently stiffen loose surfaces.* The grass seed han-owed into 
a properly prepared soil, at the suitable season of the year, might so root 
itself as to withstand the subsequent heats, while those dropped, on a hard 
or a loose surface by birds, or borne there by winds, would be exposed 
directly to the rays of tlie sun, which, if it did not entirely prevent germ- 
ination, wouUi dry up and kill the tender roots before they could strike 
deep enough to resist its influence. Much will depend, in this experi- 
ment, upon a projier selection of the variety of grass sown. That variety 
should be sown which is found to flourish best on similar soils, in the same 
climate, even tliough relatively it may be an inferior grass.t 

By means as cheap and attainable as these, I have not a doubt that no 
inconsiderable portions of the nearly naked soils of the tide-wc.ter zone 
might be brought into pasture sufficiently good to make their ultimate con- 
version into prime pastures, by means of sheep husoandry, certain. 

On the worn-out granite soils of the middle region, the once fertile red 
clay lands — now occupied only by dwarf pines, Avorthless broom-grass, etc. 
— deep plowing and thorough sowing (with the aid of steeps and the cheap 
top-dressing, befoz'e adverted to) would generally, I believe, bring these 
lands into pretty good pasture. These soils, having been subjected only 
to the one-horse plow, and hand tillage, are toorn out only on the surface. 
This is proved, in innumerable instances, in Fairfax, and other northern 
counties of Virginia, Lands considered entirely worn out, and sold for a 
mere trifle, are subjected to the northern two-horse plow, and from one to 
three inches of earth, never before disturbed, is brought to the surface, 
which readily supports grass, and even grain crops — the latter tempora- 
rily. Thus, most fortunately, the means are still left, with the aid of pas- 
turage, to make many of these lands profitably productive, and to restore 
them to much of their former fertility. 

We come now to another class of lands which may, in many cases, be 
worth I'eclaiming, but which will not, by merely being plowed and sown, 
produce sufficient grass to make their fertilization by sheep husbandry at- 
tainable — or attainable within a moderate period of time. These are the 
inferior (but not the worst) sands of the tide-water zone. Here green 
manuring must be resorted to, by means of plants which will better with- 
stand the climatic and other difficulties in the way of their getting well- 
rooted, and which will flourish in poorer soils than the grasses. Both of 
these conditions are answered by various plants. Spurry ( Sj^ergula arven- 
sis) and white Lupins ( Lupinus alhus) will flourish on dry, baiTen, and 
even shifting sands, and are extensively used as green manuring crops on 
such soils, on the Continent of Europe. From their rapid growth and ex- 
traordinary productiveness, they are admirably adapted to this end. The 
introduction of these plants would probably supply an important desidera- 
tum in Southern Agriculture, unless, as I have already expressed the opin- 
ion,! the pea leaves little to wish for, as a green manuring crop on every 
class of southern soils. Soaked in a solution of nitre — rolled in lime — top- 
dressed, after sprouting, with a slight sprinkling of ashes and gypsum|| — 



* The sands of the tide-water zone are everywhere, at greater or less depths, underlaid by clay. These 
might in some cases be reached by the plow, and portious of them incorporated with the superincumbent 
soil. 

t See Letter IIL \ In Letter IIL 

II Sprengel's analysis, in Letter III,, shows the large amount of potash required for the seed, and of lime 
for the straw of the pea. The favorable etfect of plaster on this, as on most other leguminosw, is well 
known. Ashes, plaster and lirae can be purchased here at an average of less than ten cents a bushel. A 
bushel of gypsum, mixed with say two bushels of ashes, makes a top-dressing which will pay for itself a 
number of times over, on any land to which I have ever seen it applied. In addition to rolling the seed in 
lime, a few bushels of it, or of marl, would make a good, and, where accessible and cheap, an economical 
top-dreseitig. When I speak of the price of lime hern, I do not refer to marl. The latter, in its natural 
etate, could be purchased at the beds for probably a shilling a load. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 75 

>!-- — — 

the pea would probably take root and flourish in any soil which the price 
of land in this country would justify an effort to render productive, now, 
or for a long term of years to come. Indeed, the capacity to produce this 
plant may afford the best practical test of the economy and expediency of 
attempting it in any given case. If a good green manuring crop can be 
made to grow on the soil without any more expensive aids than those 
above suggested, the lever of improvement — cheap, but effectual — is placed 
in the hands of the planter, and, if he possesses the least degree of energy, 
he has no occasion to seek a new soil and home by emigration. 

Mr. Ruffin states, if I remember aright, that a few quarts per acre, of 
peas, are sown by the Southern planters. In the North, three bushels, at 
least, are sown ; and this quantity would be little enough to pi oduce the 
largest amount of green manure. 

Theory would indicate that the crop should be turned under before it 
comes into full flower,* but experience and convenience both deserve con- 
sulting in the premises. 

An active span of horses, with a Northern two-horse plow, and an ex- 
pert plowman, would readily plow two acres per diem, on sandy soils, and 
plow it well.t The expense of getting in a crop of peas can then be read- 
ily estimated. 

If one crop can be made to take root and grow, and is plowed under 
when green, the great point is attained, and there will be neither difficulty 
nor uncertainty subsequently. The organic matter thus deposited in the 
soil is the basis on which future improvements can be effected ad libitum. 
As far south as South Carolina, at least two, and probably three crops 
could be plowed in during a single season. This might be done in time 
for winter grain, and a crop of the latter sown as a covering crop with 
grass seeds. The grain would refund much of the previous expense. 

Plowing in two or three crops in succession may, at first view, seem an 
'expensive process; but, with the exception of the extra seeding, it is no 
more labor than is bestowed on every wheat crop by a large proportion of 
the farmers of Western New-York ! When the ground is summer fal- 
lowed, the ordinary practice on our wheat lands is to have it three times 
thoroughly plowed and harrowed, and the first time a crop of clover is 
plowed in. All this is a light outlay compared with thorough marling, or 
manuring vdth swamp mud. And, after either of the latter processes, the 
land has yet to be plowed and seeded.| 

It would not be necessary to plow in as many as three crops of peas, to 
lay the foundation of ordinary pasture. Two, and possibly one, would 
suffice. The comparative utility of forcing forward the fertilization of 
land, rapidly or gradually, depends much upon the amount of capital which 
the landholder has to devote to this object. The amount of labor^ubtract- 
ed from the ordinary operations of the plantation would be very small, in 
any case, in proportion to the object to be attained. A single expert 
plowman, with a good team, could give even the three plowings to a large 
field.ll 



* " Because flower-leaves," says Johnston, " give off nitrogen into the air ; and, as this element is stip 
posed especially to promote the growth of plants, it is desirable to retain as much of it in the plant and soil 
•8 possible." — Ag. Chem., vol. ii., p. 185. 

t Perhaps more. That amount is frequently exceeded here, on stubble lands. 

X So that the expense to be otfsetted against one of those processes (in estimating their comparative 
economy as a means of reclamation with green manuring) is plowing, harrowing, and seeding tieice. 

11 I have attempted to fix no definite data on this point, because you, who are acquainted with plowing 
Southern lands, are belter competent to do so. 1 would remark, in this connection, that my convictions 
are very strong that the introduction of the two-horse plow of the North would lead to a decided improve- 
ment in your Agriculture, from the superior manner in which it does its work, and by leading to deeper 
plowing. The wheel will cause It to run as shallow as a one-horse plow, however, where the character of 
the Boil renders it desirable. 



76 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

Even in the case of either of the two classes of soils before treated of 
(those now producing thinnish pasturage, or which can be converted into 
pastures simply by plowing and seeding), one or njore green manuring 
crops would form a most excellent and accelerating initiatory step, and, 
where sufficient capital is possessed, I have no doubt, a most economical 
one, toward their fertilization. 

In view of all my preceding statements, do you ask me if I advocate 
sheep husbandry exclusively, on all the lands at the South which ah'eady 
are, or should be devoted to grazing] Most assuredly not. I have al- 
ready laid it down as a maxim that " agricultural production should be 
controlled by the demand or want, and the adaptation of the country to 
such production." By this rule, the South should, at least, never import a 
horse,* a mule, a pound of beef, pork, butter, cheese or wool. She wants 
them all, and she can produce them all mere economically than she can 
import them. That declared impossibility in politics, an impermm, in im- 
perio, should be in Agriculture, so far as it may be consistently with the 
above maxim, the attitude of every farm and plantation. Each should be 
independent to the greatest economical extent, so far as the production of 
the necessaries, comforts and luxuries of life are concerned, of every other 
farm or plantation in the world ! This mixed and multifarious farming is 
objected to by theorists, inasmuch as it trenches on the division of labor 
principle. But it favors rotation, and thereby prevents the exhaustion of 
soils — leads to a more bountiful use of the every-day comforts of lifet — 
and, finally, it is less hazardous. The one-crop farmer, if crop and market 
are both in their most favorable state, realizes great profits. But if the 
market is poor, or the crop small, the loss is proportionately large. The 
farmer pui"suing mixed husbandry will not generally fall greatly behind 
the hest profits of the other, and his losses are rarely considerable. It is 
better to play for a hit than a gammon, where, as in the case of the small 
capitalist, affluence or penury "stand the hazard of the die !" 

If the above positions are true, the South is called upon to increase the 
breeding of other domestic animals as well as sheep. To an extent suffi- 
cient to su2>ply her own wants, I consider her imperiously called upon so 
to do. I advocate the breeding of sheep specially — on a vastly more ex- 
tended scale — because, as has been already shown, they are the best (if 
not the only) reclaimers of your unproductive lands ; and because in that 
surplus of the products of gi'azing, which these extensive reclamations will 
bring about, they furnish you the exporting'^ article (wool) for which you 
can find the largest extra-Umital market, and in growing which you can best 
compete with other producers. 

Let us suppose, for the sake of the argument, that these newly reclaimed 
pasture lands would carry heavy beasts as well as sheep, and with equal 
benefit to the land. After supplying the home demand, what would be 
done with the surplus horses, mules and beeves ] To what markets in the 
world could you export horses and mules, with the exception of some of 
the West India islands — the markets of which a few thousand head of 
these animals would annually glut % Do you ask me what would prevent 
your sending your surplus beef to England 1 Nothing. But neither the 
South, nor the North, nor the East, can compete with the great North-west 

* Unless for the improvement of breeds. 

t I mean by this that the planter who raises all the necessaries of life will be more liberal of them than 
the one v/ho purchases them. 

t I do not use the word here in its technical sense. I mean cairied beyond mere local limits for sale — 
whether that sale be efiected in the same State, in some other part of the U. S., or abroad. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 77 



in producing beef (or pork*) for exportation to foreign countries. Its im- 
mense natural pastures — the profusion and cheapness with which Indian 
corn can be produced on its virgin soils — give it an advantage which in- 
creased transportation by no means counterbalances. The question then 
arises — Why, for the same reasons, cannot the vast North-western plains 
produce wool more cheaply than the South, and undersell her in our own 
and the foreign markets ? In the first place, the western pastures — that 
is to say, the wild or natural ones — which produce beef so cheaply, are, 
by reason of the coarseness and rankness of their verdure, not adapted to 
tlic growing of sheep. Secondly, the shortness and mildness of the south- 
ern winter give a decided advantage in wool growing, by affording green 
winter feed — an advantage not profitably available pi'obably, on an extend- 
ed scale, with large gi-ass-feeding animals. Again, in the North-west, 
though there is less snow, the winter is about as long, for all the practical 
purposes of husbandry, as in New-York.t Killing frosts come as early in 
autumn ; the naked ground is frozen as solidly, and far more deeply ; and 
verdure puts forth but little if any earlier in the spring. The South then 
possesses the same great advantage with the North-west in the production 
of wool — cJieap lands ; and, superadded to this, she has the short, mild 
winters, which give her a decided advantage over both the North and 
North-west. She has a marked advantage over the Northern and Eastern 
States in both particulars, and, instead of importing manufactured wools 
from them, she ©ught to supply them, by export, with at least the raw ma- 
terial. And she will do this at no distant day, unless her sons are content, 
in the gi-eat struggle and battle of industrial interests, to sacrifice their 
own by apathy or irx-esolution. 

* I have not alluded to the rearing of swine any more fully, as they are but partially a grazing animal. 
— But if the position assumed in the text be correct, it is another argument in favor of devoting your lands 
to the production of surpliis wool, instead of surplus corn. 

■f- The winter feeding of sheep in New York has already been stated to average about one hundred and 
fifty days. 



78 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER VII. 

PROFITS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.— 3. BY GIV- 
ING TO SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE A MIXED AND CONVERTIBLE CHAR- 
ACTER.— 4. BY FURNISHING THE RAW MATERIAL FOR THE MANUFAC- 
TURE OF DOMESTIC WOOLENS. 



Expediency of Rotation in Crops. ..Consequences of omitting it on Wheat Lands ofTTew-York. ..Mr. Gay- i 
lord's ^dews. ..Consequences in the Southern States. ..Mr. Roper's Report in the Legislature of South I 
Carolina — [Cotton Statistics of that State — Comparison with other States — General Agricultural Resources 
— necessity of new staples]... Judge Seabrook's Report to the State Agricultural Society of South Caro- 
lina — [Agricultural Statistics— Remedies proposed for present "distress"]... Singular omission of Wool as , 
one of the proposed new Staples. . .Southern prejudice on this subject — Causes. . .Impropriety of the one- 
crop system — Diminishes crops — Deteriorates land — Multiplies insects. ..Fertility sustained by Rotation — 1 

Causes " Resting" — Its inexpediency — Some of the Crops uf every Rotation must be converted mainly ! 

into Manure — Superior economy of converting them into Animal Manure — Sheep the most profitable ani- j 

nials for this purpose Leading principles of a profitable Soutiiern Rotation — Six-shift Course proposed — ^ 

Five-shift Course — Six-shift Course for poor soils. .-Col. Taylor's Four-shift Course — Objections- ..Com- . 
parative profit of growing Wool, Cotton and Rice, incidenlally alluded to. . .Economy of producing the raw | 
material for the Manufacture of Domestic Woolens... Cost of Slave Cloths per head per year. ..Prices now | 
paid for these Cloths — Cost of manufacturing them — Data for estimating such cost. ..Great profits of Man- g 
nfacturers in the Northern States — Their Dividends — Their metliod of exchanging Cloth for Wool — Work- ■ 
ing Wool at the halves. ..Cost of Cloths obtained by these methods. ..The South may obtain the same ad- , 
vantages — Natural Facilities — Cost of Machinery — On what terms worked — Operations. ..Cloths spun and '< 
wove by hand cheaper tlian the imported ones — Cost of the several processes of manufacturing them — • k 
Estimate of Cost per yard at the North.. .Cost of establishing Carding and Cloth.Dressing Machinery... 
Home-made Fabrics diminishing at the North — Causes. . .Same Causes will not operate to so great an ex- 
tent at the South — Reasons.. -Probable Cost of Home-made Cloths, South. 



Dear Sir : The third great benefit claimed by me among the profits of 
sheep husbandry in the Southern States was, "its comparative eificacy in 
giving to Southern Agi-iculture a mixed and convertible character, and 
thereby sustaining (or improving) all the present good tillage lands, in the 
place of continuing the "new and old field" system (tilling land until it is '' 
worn out, then abandoning it and opening new lands), once so general, ^ 
and even now by far too prevalent." 

The fii'st object of mixed husbandry has been ah'eady slated — the home J 
supply of the various necessaries of life. Its second, and still more impor- ! 
tant one, is the preservation of existing fertility in all soils fit for tillage. — j 
It certainly requires no proof or argument to demonstrate the superior ex- 
pediency of maintaining the fertility of soils, if it can be done, by a rota- , 
tion of crops, even though each of these crops is not, separately considered, ! 
the one which would yield the greatest immediate profit. In the language 
of the hackneyed aphorism, it is never expedient to " kill the goose which \ 
lays golden eggs." » 

This constant cropping with one plant was once extensively practiced j 
on the wheat lands of New-York, as many of their present owners can ' 
bitterly attest. Even now there can be no doubt that, on neai'ly all of , 
them, wheat returns too often in the rotation. These lands were once 
rapidly, and are still, I fear, slowly declining in value ; while the grazing ,i! 
lands of Southera New-York, where men have been compelled to be more 
discreet, have been constantly improving and approximating to the former 
in market value.* ;; 

* This calls to mind a letter which I received from nn old and valued correspondent, the late Willis Oay. 
lord, but a short time prior to his death. I had spoken of the advantages of his own, the wheat region, , 
over the grazing region in which I reside. Mr. G. combated this idea. He thought capital invested here 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 79 

The same system has prevailed on the rice, tobacco, and cotton lands of 
the South, and has, for a variety of reasons not necessary here to be dis- 
cussed, been, in the case of the two latter at least, more fatally pei'sisted 
;n. I have already alluded to the exhaustion of your soils consequent on 
this course of culture, but to shovv^ the wide extent of the evil — its pecu- 
Iniary consequences individually, and on whole States — the now admitted 
necessity of a rotation of crops — the equally conceded necessity of intro- 
ducing some neio staple, or staples, to render the other crops in the rota- 
tion, besides cotton, rice, and tobacco, remunerative — and various other con- 
siderations having a strong bearing on this whole question — I quote the 
following statements from Southern, as well as highly authoritative sources. 

The Committee on Agriculture of the House of Repi'esentatives of South 
Carolina, through their Chairman, Hon. R. W. Roper, made a Report to 
Ithat body, Dec. 14, 1842, from which the following are extracts : 

" Let us now turn our consideration to one otlier great staple, cotton, of which the statis- 
ijdcs are so exact that we can ascertain by calculation what our prospects are as regards com- 
petition in that article. The United States produce at present 578,012,473 lbs. — more than 
iane-half the crop of the whole world. South Carolina grows of this 43,927,171 lbs., or 1-13 
part of the quantity ; but from this source of pi-ofit her palmy days are past. Every year 
bpens new lands in the West, where congeniality of soil and climate to this commodity in- 
i:reases the product per acre far beyond what can be reared at home, and consequently re- 
iuces the value infinitely below the costly prices which fonnerly enriched Carolina. These 
uew lands produce, on an average, 2,500 lbs. of cotton per hand, while the lands in Carolina 
>'ield but 1,200 lbs., and the expenses of a laborer being about equal in either place, reduces 
the Carolina cotton to half its intrinsic value. We have also the declaration of Mr. Dixon H. 
Lewis, in a recent speech in Congress, that cotton, divested of Goveiiiment embarrassments, 
might be gi"own in Alabama for three cents a pound. 

"Your Committee will avail itself of the lucid calculations of a distinguished and talented 
individual,* to present another view of the subject, startling in its details, and bearing strong- 
ly on the propi-iety of summing up all our resources. The crop of the world amounts to 
1,000,000,000 lbs., which woidd require, at the rate of 250 lbs. per acre, 4,000,000 of acres 
ito grow this quantity. Now, the ibur States bordering on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico — 
V'iz., Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida — contain 130,000,000 of acres ; proving 
:hat, if only one acre in 32 were found capable of producing 250 lbs. to the acre, these f )ur 
States could, alone, supply the demand of all the markets in the world. In this calculation, 
the produce of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, with portions of other 
iitates, besides 150,000,000 acres in Texas, are entirely excluded. The lands of the Gulf 
States, therefore, and Texas, are sufficient to supply the demands of the world in all time to 
;ome. Where, then, is tlie hope or prospect of South Carolina in the competition ? . . . 

" South Cai'olina comprises within her borders 16,000,000 acres of land, of which only 
1,300,000 are cultivated. Of this, cotton occupies 175,700 acres ; rice, 80,000 ; Indian coin, 
i00,000; potatoes, 22,612; wheat, 24,079— making an aggregate of about 800,000 acres ; tho 
l)alance of 500,000 are taken up in oats, lye, barley, hay, tobacco, and a limited portion of 
jither articles necessary to the supplies of life. To what use, theu, is the balance of our ter- 
1 

" etumed quite as good or better profits, than on the -wheat lands. He thought, taken as a whole, the graz- 
\i\% farmers were doing better than the wheat farmers. The latter, though ostensibly making an equal and 

requently better per centage, were wasting their capital. The grazing lands and the wheat lands were rap- 
idly approaching each other in market value, by the rise of the foiTner and the deterioration of the latter. 
^lay this not afford a parallel to what will one day be witnessed in the Southern States ! 
I It is difficult for me to pass by the name of this accomplished writer — this pure, upright and philanthropic 

nan — without throwing one stone on the cairn of his well-merited fame. He felt himself, from his infancy, 
!;ut off from the companionship of his kind, by disease and deformity ; but. notwithstanding the body waa 
" ugly," he "carried a precious jewel in his head." Triumphing over constant physical sufferings which 

vould have prostrated most men, he made attainments in general knowledge possessed by few of his con- 
'I'raporaries. His range of reading and study was remarkable. In his beautiful and sparkling letters to 

ne, every subject and almost every science is touched upon by him in a manner that shows that he at least 
iiad mastered their general principles ; and, in the ahandoii of private intercourse, they seem to have been 

o him as the flowerets of a garden, among which his spirit could roam with that playful and joyous actiy- 
Ity which was denied to his poor, frail body, among the objects of the outer and physical world. 
. Freely, unassumingly, and without an aspiration but for the good of his fellow men, his mind poured out 
\'i Stores on a variety of topics in the publications of the day. Fortunately, he gave his principal attentifjn 
■jo the subject of Agiiculture, and, if not a discoverer (which he never claimed to be), he investigated and 
P'/lated with an industriousness of research, discrimination and perspicacity, which brought the truth from 
Ml the dift'erent sources where discovery or experience had left its disjerta. membra, into essays, so well com- 

lajted, so clearly arranged, that men of the most ordinary parts could not only understand his separate sen- 

ences and positions, but their connection and aggregate bearing, and thus master the whole subject. Peace 

J his ashes I 
I * Gov, Hammond. 



80 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

ritory, of 14,000,000 of acres, to be appropriated ? Are we forever to be supplied with stock 
from the West, bread-stutfs from the Middle States, and manufactures from the North ? Is 3 
all that we can realize from our labor to be expended abroad ? Nothing to be left for our I 
own improvements or our hixuiy ? As one means of correcting this evil, your Committee i 
propose an Agricultural Survey of the State, to determine our natural advantages, develop 
our facilities of improvement, exhibit our profits and expenditures, and awaken our citizens 
to the impoi'tance of vying with the rest of the human family in all the improvements of 
which our location is susceptible 

" The exp(jsition which your Committee has given, showing the great competition of for- 
eign rice with our own, and that South Carolina cannot compete with the West in the cheap 
production of cottorj, and tliat she must, ere long, be driven from the market, demonsti'atea 
the necessity of looking abroad and around us for other sources of advancement and profits \ 
than those tve possess. ... / 

" We cannot expect that accident is continually to supply new staples suited to our soil ■ 
and climate, and place us beyond the reach of contingent circumstances. We must resort 
to science to improve our Agriculture, and to machinery to enlarge and prepare present arti- 
cles of culture, or transplant and acclimate new products, which w^ill again, like those we '' 
liave lost and will lose, lead off for a period in the employment of capital, amassing of wealth 
aud diffusion of human happiness." 

The House and Senate agreed with the Report, the same day, and its « 
principal recommendation, an Agricultural Survey of the State, was \ 
adopted. 

The Committee appointed by the South Carolina State Agricultural So- 
ciety to consider the scheme of Col. Davie to reduce the quantity of cotton 
grown, made a Report, through their Chairman, Judge Seabrook, at the 
winter meeting of the Society, 1845-6, from which the following are ex- 
tracts :* 

" Another cause of our distress is that, in a large portion of the southern country, cotton is 
cultivated, when its production does not now, and never can, at all compensate the planter 
for the labor bestowed. I'here it is desirable for every one that other branches of industry 
should be pursued. . . . We do not intend to encourage the cultivation of cotton to the U 
neglect of the other pr(5ducts necessary to support or comi'ort. Eveiy planter should prompt- 
ly render himself indejjendejit in reference to those articles tohich could be prodiiced on his 
plantation. In this way he would profitably curtail the quantity of land devoted to the cot- 
ton crop. An abandonment of the present extremely defective mode of culture, and the sub- 
stitution of a better, would insure a larger quantity of cotton than would be lost by diversify- 
ing the products of industry. In other words, his cotton crop would be larger; his corn, 
^vheat, rice, oats, barley, horses, mules, hogs, cattle, sheep, butter and vegetables, would be 
the produce of his farm. 

" If, however, the cotton crop is to be given up one-half, after all the reductions of it which || 
we have sanctioned, to what else can the planter of the South so j)rofitably turn his attention ? | 
To grain ? He already, in ordinary years, produces twice as much as the Middle States, and s!| 
about one-eighth more than the West. In Indian corn alone, the produce of the South, by j 
her last census, was 300 million bushels. If the planter of cotton is engaged in an unprofit- \ 
able business, much more is the gi'ain raised. . . . Millions of acres in South Carolina, 'il 
including the lower country, are admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses. This ;| 
might be added as another branch of industry, fiom which reasonable profits might be real- 
ized, and might very well be added to the cotton planter's income. The business of tanning 
and the manufactures of leather might be and ought to be enlarged. In this Stjite, all the 
means of a successful pursuit of this branch of industry are at hand and within the reach of 
every one. Hides, lime, bark and mechanics (slaves) are abundant." 

The remarks in both of the above extracts, though made exclusively in 
reference to South Carolina, will apply equally well, in many obvious par- 
ticulars, to all the old cotton and tobacco growing States. 

To a Northern man, accustomed from his childhood to see sheep hus- 
bandry blended, to a greater or less extent, in the operations of nearly 
every farm, and to live among farmers who regard it just as indispensable, 
and as much a matter of course, as the production of bread-stuffs, it seems 
singular enough that neither of the above able Committees, in looking for 

* As has been before stated, the other members of the Committee were Judge O'Neall and W. J. Alleton, 
Esq. Mr. A. did not concur with his colleagues in the proposition that there was not already an absolute 
overproduction of cotton. Ho believed there was. In all other particulars, and consequently in all em- 
braced in the extracts given, he concurred in the Keporl. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 81 

"other sources of advancement" — "new products" — "other branches of 
industry" — both to bring into use millions of aci'es of unproductive terri- 
tory " admirably adapted to the raising of rich grasses," and to render 
profitable and preserve the fertility of the tillage lands of the State, should 
not have thought of w^ool growing — or only thought of it, as it were, inci- 
dentally — at the very heel of a catalogue of farm products, and in refer- 
ence solely to supplying the home want ! 

Indeed, the estimate which has been set upon sheep husbandry gener- 
ally, and by all classes of agriculturists, South, is a source of unmixed sur- 
prise to one acquainted with this pui-suit, and with the resources of that 
region for sustaining it. There appears among many, if I may credit your 
own writers,* to be even a prejudice against slieep and sheep husbandry, 
per se ! Is this because these animals bear a staple, and give employment 
to manufactories, which have claimed the "protection" of Government, to 
the prejudice, in the opinion of Southern politicians, of Southern interests W 
Is any portion of it due to the scornful denunciations of the brilliant, but 
eccentric and cynical, statesman of Roanoke, who " would at any time go 
out of his way to kick a sheep" % Or is it owing to the, in most respects, 
justly popular writings of Col. Taylor, of Virginia'? Hon. Andrew Ste- 
venson, of the same State, in a letter to John S. Skinner, Esq., says :| 

" The prejudice which the late Col. John Taylor, of Caroline (who, by-the-hy, did more 
for Agriculture than any man in America), had against sheep, has been the means of render- 
ing this description of stock unpopular in many parts of the southern country. ... If 
this distinguished patriot and statesman had lived at this day, he would have chan£;ed his 
opinion." 

The impropriety and inexpediency of giving all the labor and prime land 
of the country to the exclusive cultivation of one or two crops, even leav- 
ing the deterioration of the lands, consequent on such a course, out of the 
question, is forcibly set forth in the Reports above quoted from. But that 
deterioration is an infinitely more fatal evil, both to individuals and States. 
An injudicious course of cropping can be easily changed; but, if the land 
is entirely impoverished, the cliange comes too late, until labor and capital 
have been employed on its restoration. The tendency, nay, the absolute 
connection as cause and effect, between the one-crop system and such dete- 
rioration, has been proved by too sad an experience at the South — is too 
universally recognized and conceded — to find a single questioner who pos- 
sesses ordinary intelligence. Whether the consequent phenomena are 
solved by the excretionary theory of De Candolle, or the more ordinary 
one of the exhaustion of some of those substances which constitute the ne- 
cessary food of plants, the facts presented are the same.|| The soil yields 
constantly diminishing crops, until it becomes incapable of producing more 
than scattering and feeble plants ; and the insect enemies of the latter, 
which would perish if deprived of their aliment by the substitution of some 
other plants, multiply in a constantly ascending ratio. § 

* Hon. Andrew Stevenson, John S. Skinner, tt al . in Monthly Jfnirnal of Agriculture, &c. 

t If such protection has prejudiced the South, what stronger reason why she should remunerate herself 
by appropriating a share of it ! 

J Monthly Journal of Asrriculrure, July, 184.5. 

II The theory of M. De Candolle, apparently so strongly supported by the experiment.s of M. Mncaire, has 
found many believers. But the statements of the latter have been contradicted by M. Braconnct, M. Mir- 
bel, and finally are totally overthrown, in my judgment, by the experiments and investigations of jMr. Altrcd 
Gyde, of Scotland. Mr. Gyde shows that the minute excretions of plants have the sanle conipo.''ition with 
their sap; and he also watered plants with a solution of their excretions, not only without injury, but to 
their manifest benefit ! For Mr. Gyde's able Prize Essay on this subject, see the Transactions ("if ilie High- 
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland (March, 1846). I am not aware that this essay has been repub- 
lished in our country. It certainly should be. 

§ Of the latter evil, the past year furnished a presrnant example. I saw it stated last winter, in the South 
Carolinian (published at Columbia, S. C), on the authority of an United States Senator, that the falling off 
in the cotton crop would be enormous, by reason of the depredation of wirrms. This evil is constantly in 
creasing, and must continue to, while the planter continues to provide aliment for each succeeding hord« 
of destroyer^ by continuing on the soil the plants on which they prey. 

L 



82 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

Experience has shown that if vegetables of different classes are made to 
follow each other, the soil will much longer retain its productiveness. — 
Kven when " exhausted" of some one or more of those ingredients neces- 
sary for the healthy production of a particular plant, it is found to produce 
others luxuriantly which do not require the lacking ingredients, or but very 
minute portions of them. And, by a most beautiful arrangement of phys- 
ical causes and effects, when a plant is removed fi-om the soil, and notwith- 
standing its place is occuj)ied by others, a process of restoration at once 
commences to replace all that the absent plant has appropriated, and to 
prepare the kindly bosom of the earth again for its reception. Nature 
herself, in ministering to this beneficent end, becomes a great laboratory ; 
and in her most ordinary, as well as her most unusual operations, she is 
constantly producing those chemical changes, and furnishing those chem- 
ical ingredients, which restore what has been abstracted by man's cupid- 
ity, or lost by his improvidence. The gentle rain brings down ammonia 
and carbon to plants. The frost rives the solid rocks, to disengage their 
fertilizing constituents. The sun, in his flaming path, looks down not only 
to warm and give us light, but to perform functions in the vegetable econ- 
omy without which all herbage, except a few miserable fungi, would per- 
ish ; and to all he imparts their varied and beautiful coloring. The thun- 
der which shakes the walls of cities, and strikes man with awe, brings to 
our aid one of the most efficient promoters of vegetation. Even the burst- 
ing volcano converts its fiery crater into a crucible and retort, and gives 
off" that gas which forms so large a portion of all the vegetable and animal 
productions of the globe : and the wild winds, which strand navies in their 
course, equally diffuse it over the earth. 

It follows from the above positions that naturally good lands* which are 
more or less exhausted, will be gradually resuscitated by "rest," or an en- 
tire exemption from tillage ; and hence the absurd idea that lands require 
physical " rest," in the same sense in which the tired animal muscle re- 
quires it, after continuous exertion. But, apart from the theory, the prac- 
tice of " resting^^ lands is inexpedient, for the following reasons: If a 
plant is not continued on a soil until it consumes any of those inorganic 
constituents necessary to its production — if, on the other hand, it is suc- 
ceeded by a plant which makes its heaviest drafts on those inorganic sub- 
stances which its predecessor required the least of, and vice versa — the 
natural recuperative process above adverted to, aided hy means which lose 
to us none of the value of the crops, will repair the waste made by each 
plant, before it again occupies the soil, in a judicious rotation. Hence, by 
a rotation of crops, fertility can be indefinitely sustained, and the earth 
each year return its increase. Thus the ends of "rest" are attained, with- 
out its great and unprofitable sacrifices. 

To sustain the fertility of the soil, some portion of the crops of every 
rotation must be converted into manure. These are the " aiding means" 
above alluded to. They may be conveited ilito green or animal manure. 
If the former, the whole crop is plowed under. If the latter, the crop is 
first partly converted into animal manure, by animals depastured on it, and 
then this animal manure, with the remaining vegetation, is plowed under. 
The last is always the most economical method, on good lands,t because 
the crop is worth almost as much for manure, after passing through the 



* I Bay "naturally good lands," for those entirely deficient in several of the necessary constituents of a 
fertile soil might rtqiiire ages of rest to obtain these constituents — if, indeed, they ever would, by merely 
natural causes. 

t I have limited the assertion to " good lands," because a crop of green manure, turned under at the 
proper stage of its growth, will undoubtedly make rather more manuie than in any other way ; and it may 
be expedient many times to give poor lands all. This ia especially true in the reclamation of barren lands. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



83 



bodies of atiimals, as it would be turned under green ; and tlien we have 
all the profit made on or by the animals — meat, wool, &c. — without any 
additional cost. Sheep, being the best manurers, and otherwise the most 
profitable animals, will (with enough other animals to supply all tlie home 
demand for the necessaries furnished by them) best sustaiu a profitable ro- 
tation. 

Here, perhaps, the discussion of this topic in connection with the sub- 
ject matter of these letters should terminate ; but I am unwilling to aban- 
don it, without making a few practical suggestions as to the rotation which 
would be found most profitable at the South — more particularly on the 
valuable cotton lands, which are suffering most for the want of it. It is 
manifestly impossible to lay down any rule or rules on this subject, which 
can or should be rigidly acted upon, in all instances. Leading principles 
can only be declared, and, if correct, the intelligent man can always vary 
their application so as to meet the exigencies of his particular case. 

First, I should consider it indispensable on all cotton (or tobacco) lands,* 
under all circumstances, to keep at least one-third of them in pasturage, to 
insure the proper amount of manure, over and above cotton seed, and 
such occasional supplies of swamp mud and marl as might be obtained at 
spare intervals — and all other incidental manures. Another third, 1 be- 
lieve, should be generally devoted to grain for bread stuffs, for fattening 
the necessary amount of bacon, and for the winter forage of horses, mules, 
swine, &c. Unless the horses and mules, and, perhaps I should add, the 
cows, were wintered entirely, or in great part, on grain and the offal of 
the grain crops, one-third of the cultivated land in grass, would not support 
animals enough to produce the manure requisite for two-thirds in cotton 
and grain. But in making the above division, I spoke only of the arable 
lands fit for the gi'owth of cotton. Most plantations have poor, or swampy, 
or rough lands, which would most profitably be kept permanently in grass, 
and these would supply the deficit. The remaining third of the arable 
lands might be devoted to cotton, or, in the tobacco region, to tobacco. 

By the course above proposed, the cotton (or tobacco) and wool would 
be made the salable products. The grain, grass, dairy products, bacon, 
&c., would be consumed on the plantation. This is as it should be. Eu- 
ropean famine has given a stir to the latter products this year, (and it may 
for a year more,) in the Southern markets ; but with the ordinary Euro- 
pean demand, the old Southern Atlantic States cannot, as we have seen, 
compete at a profit with these commodities, which debouch through the 
Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the northern canals. With the two 
wools, as they are sometimes called, the " vegetable and animal," these 
States can undoubtedly sustain themselves against the pressure of any out- 
ward competition. 

Such a division of crops as the one above proposed, could be effected 
by a six-course system of rotation. Let us suppose the land of the planta- 
tion fit to grow corn and cotton, divided into six equal fields. I then pro- 
pose the following rotation : 



1st year 


Grass depastured. 


1st year 


Grass depastured. 


1st year 


Cotton. 


2d .. 


do. do. 


2d .. 


Cotton. 


2d .. 


Cotton with yard ma- 


3d .. 


Cotton. 


3d .. 


Cotton with yard ma- 




nure, &c. 


4th ,. 


Cotton with yard ma- 




nure, &c. 


3d .. 


Corn with peas. 




nure, &c. 


4th .. 


Com with peas. 


4th .. 


Small grains with grass 


5th .. 


Corn with peas. 


5th .. 


Small grains with grass 




seed. 


6th .. 


Small grains with grass 




seed. 


5th .. 


Grass depastured. 




seed. 


6th .. 


Grass depastured. 


6th .. 


do. do. 



* I have not included the rice lands, because being; deep beds of alluvial deposits, composed in a great 
measure of organic matter, and being susceptible of irrigation, they will not wear out like ordinary soils, 
and stand less In need of rotation in their crops. 



84 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



Ist year 


Cottou with yard ma- 


1st year 


Corn with peas. 


1st year 


Small. grains with grass 




nure, &;c. 


2d .. 


Small grains with grass 




seed. 


2d - 


Com with peas. 




seeds. 


2d .. 


Grass depastured. 


3d .. 


Small gi-aius with grass 


.3d - 


Grass depastured. 


3d .. 


do. do. 




seed. 


4th .. 


do. do. 


4th .. 


Cotton. 


4th .. 


Gra.ss depastured. 


.-.Ih .- 


Cotton. 


bdi .. 


Cotton with yard ma- 


5th .. 


do. do. 


tilh .. 


Cotton with yard ma- 




nure, &c. 


6th .. 


Cotton. 




nure, &.C. 


fith .. 


Corn with peas. 



Supposing each of these fields to coiitam 50 acres, this would give 100 
aci'es of grass, 100 of cotton, and 100 of grain (50 of corn and 50 of small 
grains) annually. 

By this course all the hauled* manure, each year, would be given to 
one-sixth of the land, and consequently the same field would not receive 
it but once in six years — yet eccry croji would be adequately manured. 
The first cotton crop would receive an ample amount from the grass roots 
and the droppings of animals for two years ; the second, from the hauled 
manure ; the corn, fi'om the manure left by the previous crop, and, if 
needed, by a small amount of cotton seed, ashes, (or some other mineral 
fertilizer,) in the hill ; the small grain crop would be amply manured by 
the peas sown with the preceding corn ; and the land would go back into 
grass in excellent " heart," and, if the previous tillage was what it should 
be, entirely free from weeds. The corn might intervene between the two 
cotton crops, and thus remove the objection which exists against taking 
two crops of the same kind in succession. But I placed cotton 4th, be- 
cause there should come a manured crop at this period of the rotation, and 
I thought it better to give the manure to the more valuable crop, and be- 
cause cotton, as the 5th crop, would not admit of the cultivation of the pea, 
to provide manure for the small grain succeeding. The rotation might be 
thus varied, however, if circumstances should seem to render it desirable. 

I have put down no meadow in the rotation on the arable lands. But 
I believe the growth of hay to a certain extent, not only to supply any or- 
dinary deficiency in winter feed beyond the quantity furnished by the 
usual sources — but to guard against coijtingencies, would be good econo- 
my in all cases. All farm animals must be well wintered, to give a prof- 
itable return in summer ; and those occasional scarcities of fi»dder always 
liable to overtake the farmer, should be providently guarded against. It 
is never considered poor economy, in the North, to have a few tons of hay 
even to summer over. The necessai'y meadows fiu' the plantation might 
be made on some of the less arable lands before referred to — and, when 
the tillage lands are in an uncommonly fertile state and pasturage plenty, 
it would do to mow one of the grass crops (the second one) of the above 
rotation, though, if avoidable, I should think the other course entirely 23i"ef- 
erable. 

On poorer lands — the poorest class which can be profitably devoted to 
cotton growing — I would propose a five-shift course, as follows : 

Ist year, Grass depastured. 3d year, Cotton. 

' 2d . . do. do. 4th . . Com witli peas. 

5ih year. Small grains with grass seed. 

The manure to be given to the third or fourth crop, according to circum- 
stances, or divided between them. 

On lands of a still inferior grade, but which it may be expedient to 
plow at intervals, I would propose the following : 

1st year, Grass depa.sturcd. 4th year. Gra.ss depastured (or mown.) 

2d .. do. do. 5th .. Corn with peas. 

3d . . do. do. 6th . . Small grains with grass seed. 

* I mean by this, the manure from every source which is carted upon the land in quantity, as contradis- 
tinguished from that which is dropped there by animals, made by plowing under vegetables, or earned on 
in small quantities to drop in the hill, &c. 



oiiKEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 85 

The number of years depastured to depend upon fertility — the poorer the 
land, the longer it should be kept in pasture. 

The following is the rotation which was introduced by Col. Taylor, 
north of the cotton-growing region : 

1st year, Cora. 3d year, Clover (and weeds) not mown nor 

2d .. Wheat and clover sown — if too grazed. 

poorfor wheat, left at rest and not grazed. 4th .. Clover not mown nor grazed. 

Of this, Mr. John J. Thomas, one of the Editors of the Albany Culti- 
vator, very justly remarks : 

" It was materially opposed to the principles of good husbandry in several respects. It 
famished vegetable manure only to the land. A large portion of the value of this vegetable 
growth was lost, by dissipation into the air, during its decay. The returns from the land 
were necessanly small, as only two years out of four produced crops for harvesting. And it 
greatly increased the labors of tillage, by the increase of noxious weeds." 

Had this clover been fed off by sheep, a portion of the above objections 
would be inapplicable, and there would be no danger of the com 
leaving the soil too impoverished for wheat, particularly if peas were 
sown with the former, to be plowed under. A crop of weeds is, of all 
others, the most to be avoided, as the seeds deposited by it will continue 
to sprout for years with the subsequent tillage crops, rendering them foul 
and difficult of cultivation. 

I may be in a profound eiTor, but I cannot but believe, after carefully 
studying Southern Agi'iculture, and the circumstances which invest it, 
that by adopting the six-shift system of rotation above recommended, or 
something analogous to it, on the cotton lands, the desideratum expressed 
in Judge Seabrook's Report wdll be attained. More cotton will ulti- 
mately, if not even now, be produced from less land : the other necessa- 
ries of life will become mainly the product of the plantation ; a new staple 
will be introduced to employ the surplus capital, as profitable at least in 
its acreable products as cotton, and tending to the constant reparation, as 
cotton tends to the constant waste of the fertility of the land. 

I will not tire you. Sir, with a comparison between the relative pi'ofits 
of wool and cotton growing. On looking over the answers of Southern 
gentlemen to Mr. Walker's Treasury Circular, (1845,) I find that the 
stated profits on cotton in the Atlantic and Gulf States, west of Louisiana, 
range from 1 to 8 per cent, on capital invested — the average of all the 
statements being about 4^ per cent. ! 

I may remark incidentally that in your own able replies to that Circular, 
you set dowTi the profits of rice growing between 1842 and 1845, at Viper 
cent. ; for the ten preceding years, at " about 8 per cent." 

A reference to Letter V. will show you how these profits compare with 
those of wool-growing. Admitting the accuracy of the data therein given, 
there is no very great difference in the cost of growing a pound of wool 
and a potmd of cotton ! 

We come now to Xh^ fourth point of view in which we are to regard the 
profits of sheep husbandry in the Southern States — " whether independent 
of preceding considerations, and even if the staples furnished by sheep hus- 
bandry proved no more profitable, in direct returns on capital invested, 
than some of the present staples, it would not be better economy, on the 
whole, for the South to produce the raw material and manufacture do- 
mestic woolens, particularly for the apparel and bedding of slaves, than to 
be dependent for them on England and Massachusetts % " 

The woolen apparel and bedding of slaves, when no part of it is manu- 
factured on the plantation, costs about $6 per head per annum. The 
blankets imported from England weigh about \\ lbs, and cost a little over 



86 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

$3. The Welsh plains, imported from England, weigh usually not far from 
13 ounces per yard, and cost from 65 to 70 cents; and the Chelmsfords, 
a heavy, coarse article, from Massachusetts, from 50 to 58 cents. 

Now what is the cost of manufacturing (including wool and every other 
expense,) cloth of the same amount of stock, and better quality, than Welsh 
plains ] To the present weight of the cloth per yard add one-third, and 
you have the weight of the wool in the fleece — as bought of the farmer.* If, 
then, the Welsh plains weigh 13 ounces per yard, they required 17^^ ounces 
of fleece-wool as stock. Wool of the quality worked into " plain cloth " 
or " sheep's gray," in this State, (New-York,) many shades better in qual- 
ity than the stock of Welsh plains, has averaged from June to December, 
1846, from, say, 20 to 22 cents a pound! — or, if pulled from the pelts of 
slaughtered sheep, as is the case with large quantities of it worked into 
these cloths, it did not, during the same period, stand the pui'chaser-in to 
exceed 18 cents per pound. Assume the average to be 21 cents per pound, 
and the stock of a yaixl of these cloths (17^ ounces) would cost 22|^ cents. 

You are familiar with the character of the " sheep's grays " of New- 
York. They are worn almost universally by our farmers. Of the twenty- 
five thousand men you saw at the State Fair at Rochester, at least three- 
fourths of them oi'dinarily wear this quality of cloth for pantaloons, and 
say one-half of them for coats. Its ordinary weight is from that of the 
Welsh plain to 16 ounces per yard, and its style and expense of manufac 
tare are superior to those of the former. It can be manufactured, in- 
cluding use of machinery, &c., and every process after the wool is received 
in the fleece, to fitting it for market, for eleven cents per yard ! A mer- 
chant of this State owns a marmfactory, employing say $25,000 or $30,000 
of capital, which turns off from 500 to 600 yards of cloth per diem — the 
fleece-wool being converted into finished cloth in eight days. His whole 
expenses, including use of manufactory, averages, according to his own 
statements, not to exceed the above named price per yard. Add this sum 
to the cost of wool, and cloths containing an equal quantity and quality of 
stock with Welsh plains would cost 33|^ cents per yard ; and you there- 
fore pay for this class of cloths about one Imndrcd per ct«^. beyond the first 
cost, for transportation, duties, and manufacturer's profits. The latter, of 
course, absorbs most of the immense sum thus paid, or rather throicn away, 
annually by the Southern States. The Chelmsfords, and various other 
woolen goods imported by you, are probably manufactured at nearly equal 
profits. 

Ig it singular, then, that " acres of woolen manufactories " are now in 
the process of erection in the North 1 or that existing establishments 
are declaring dividends of from ten to fifteen per cent. '\\ 

But I have not done with the data of manufacturing. The manufac- 
turer above alluded to has, to my certain knowledge, exchanged "sheep's 
grays " requiring a pound of stock per yard, for wool of the same quality 
as the stock, giving a yard of cloth for 1|^ lbs. of wool. Calling this wool 



■* After being washed in the ordinary manner on the back of the sheep. 

t Wool hag risen since December. 

J I did contemplate an enumeration of the new woolen manufactories now buiWing, or in contempla- 
tion, within ray knowledf.'(^, in this Siate and New-England ; but will mention but a few of the most im- 
portant ones. The Bay Stale Mills, now in process of erection in the new city of Lawrence, Mass., will 
work up 2,000,000 ll)s. of wool per annum. One. of the mills, 200 feet long and six stories hiah, will go into 
operation thii summer. The machine-sliop, wool-hou,se, etc., ithe mere offices,) will be, including wings, 
tliirtern hundred fat in length, and three stories high. Their very sewer will cost .$2.5,000 ! A splendid 
steam mill has just gone into oi)eration in Utica, in this State, which will work up 1,000,000 11)9. of wool per 
annum. Another of the same size is in contemplation, in Utica ; another in Syracuse ; another in Auburn, 
&c. I There never was a time when .American msinufactures stood on a firmer basis, or were making bet- 
ter profits with a prospect of having them iimtinuous. This is conceded by the ablest of the manufacturer* 
themselves, as 1 shdU, in the proper place, show. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 87 



I 21 cents per pound, the cloth would thus cost the purchaser 36|^ cents per 
i yard. 

I Any of the manufactories doing custom-work will manufacture these 
goods " at the halves," so that a yard requiring a pound of stock would 
i cost two pounds of wool, or 42 cents. That as heavy as Welsh plains 
■ would thus cost 451 cents, it being from 19i to 241 cents per yard less than 
you note pay. Yet here the manufacturer of custom-work admits the suffi- 
ciency of the pi-ofit, by asking no more. 

Blankets are of still coarser wool, having the appearance of Smyrna, or 
inferior South American. They are not " sheared,"* which diminishes 
the waste. Neither do they need dyeing matter. But independent of 
these considerations, calling cost of stock per pound, and the waste fi-oni 
all causes the same, 6 lbs. of fleece-wool would make a blanket. To the 
wool costing 21 cents a pound add 11 cents per pound (of the stock) for 
manufacturing, and the actual cost of the blanket is Si 92. Have them 
manufactured by the halves, and they would cost you 12 lbs. of wool each, 
or S2 52. 

I have in the previous estimates, based my calculations on the market 
jnice of the lower quality of medium wools.t But there is another and a 
most important view of the subject. It has already been shown that the 
South can produce wool, to any desirable extent, at a sum not exceeding 
8 cents per pound — and, in favored localities, at a much lower rate. By 
the exchanging system (wool for cloth) you would get a yard of cloth 
equaling the Welsh plain in stock, and superior in quality, for 2 lbs. 2f oz. 
of wool, costing the producer just 171 cents ! A blanket weighing 41 lbs. 
would be obtained for 12 lbs. of wool, costing 9G cents ! 

Does this sound a little like dreaming, Sir ] I ask you to carefully 
examine the premises, and see if there is any escaping from these con- 
clusions ] 

Will the South continue to slumber on, thus throwing away the fruits 
of her industry 1 Do you tell me that her people know nothing about 
manufacturing, and have no taste for it ] The necessary knowledge is as 
readily acquired by a Southern as a Northern man ; and when that is oK 
tained, and there is a prospect of profit ahead, the taste will not long be 
wanting ! You have the capital : you have natural facilities to an un- 
bounded extent both to propel the machinery and produce the staple. 
What more do you want ] What more can you ask ] A joint stock asso- 
ciation of planters, at any suitable point, might cause a manufactory to be 
erected worth say $25,000, under the direction of a skillful and experi- 
enced machinist. This would tui'n off, say, 500 yards of cloth per diem. 
If the machinery was in all respects good, and the water-powei sufficient 
and unfailing, a competent and responsible Northern manufacturer could 
be obtained (if desired), to take the establishment, furnisliing hands, &:c., 
and work the wool furnished him into cloth of the kind before described — 
containing about the same stock with Welsh plains, and fitting it for mar 



■ * After a suffi cient number of fibres have been torn up from the threads by the teazles or card? of the 
" arig-oiill " to form a sufficiently thick nap on the surface, these fibres are cropped or "sheared " by a ma- 
chine for that pui-pose ; and in supei-fine cloths the process is several times repeated, each time cutiin!; otf 
an additional portion of fibre, which is called "flocks." A dishonest custom now prevails amoni^ some 
manufacturers of working these flocks again into the body of the cloth to give them weight, denscness, and 
apparent firmness. By this means the gigging and shearing process can be continued on thinnish oloth.s un- 
til a beautiful surface is obtained, without the additional thinness and lightness consequent thereon being 
apparent to any but an experienced eye. Sheep's grays and other coarse cloths are gigged and sheared but 
slightly. In some manufactories the former process is altogether omitted, and the cloth is simply 
" brushed " prior to shearing. Such cloths are stronger, but do not look as well. 

t Say of the quality of common South-Down and Native and Long wools, with a sufficient dash of Me- 
rino blood in the last to make them carding-wooia, and to bring thein to about the same fineness with 
the first named. 



88 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

ket, for eight or nine cents a yard* I know of a manufacturer, at no great 
distance from me, who thus takes a manufactory worth perhaps $8,000 or »| 
$10,000, and furnishes the cloth (of the above stamp,) fitted for market, for 
nine cents a yard, the owner furnishing the wool, tlie use of the manufac- 
tory, and the dyeing matter.t The supply of water at this establishment i 
fails durino- two or three months each year ; and one competent to judge ; 
informs me that seven cents would be better pay per yard, if the machine- j 
ry could be kept in motion the year round. It is probable that it would ^1 
cost rather more at the South to provide the necessary fixtures, obtain 
machinery, etc. ; and it would also cost more, for a period, to carry on , 
manufacturing, from the greater difiSculty of obtaining operatives in case ,] 
of losino- any of those attached to the establishment. All these disadvan- j 
tao-es, however, not of much importance at the first, will soon disappear, i 
Slaves should, as rapidly as the nature of the case admits of, be converted Ji 
into operatives, and when the number becomes cmce adequate to the end, it j 
mio-ht be indefinitely multiplied, without those embarrassments which so j 
commonly attend the attempt to mingle white and black labor. 1 

It is cheaper to manufacture by hand,| (with the exception of carding, = 
fiillino-, and dressing,) than to purcliase your slave cloths at present prices, i 
■if slave costs no more than free labor. 

On the average, 15 knots of loarp, and 15 of JHUng, make one yard of ; 
flannel about 5 quarters wide. The ordinary shrinkage of this, in fulling 
it into cloth, is one quarter in length and width. It would therefore re- 
quire 40 knots to make a yard of fulled cloth. The carding here in small 
parcels costs 3 cents per pound, and 18|- cents per pound for fulling, dye- 
ino- and dressing. In considerable quantities, the carding can be hired done 
for 2 cents per pound, and the other processes for one shilling per yard. 
Spinning (by considerable quantities and for " cash-pay, "||) can be hired 
done for 7 cents a run (20 knots) for warp, and 5 cents for filling — averag- 
ino-6 cents for both. Weaving can be hired done for 6 cents per yard (of 
flannel), which brings it, in the dressed cloth, to 8 cents per yard. The ac- 
count would then stand thus : 



I lb. of wool 

Carding same 

Spinning' 

Weaving - - . 

Dyeing, fulling and dressing . 

Total 



Small parcels. 


Large parcels. 


21 cents. 

3 ■' 
14 " 
10 " 
183 .. 


21 cents. 

12 " 

8 " 

12J " 


66| cents. 


■5.^^ cents. 



Making bb^ cents the price of a yard of domestic cloth, estimating the 
wool at market price : estimating the latter at cost of production (8 cents), 
the price of the finished cloth would be 421 cents per yard, and it is a 
better article for wear than either the Welsh plains or Chelmsfords.§ 



* I have no doubt it cnulrl be done at a fair profit in the North for 7 cents per yard. I am understood, of 
course, to mi'an thiii thi- miiiiul'ainiirer pays no nnil, in.-aurance, nor for repairs. The stockholders furnish 
the wool, which is worked up hy tlie former, at the stiiiulated price. 

t Modern ingenuity has reduced the expense of this to a mere Irifie. Most of the "sheep's firays," you 
have observed, are of fer<Ti!;inou8 hue. Those of this color are dyed principally by tan bark— the bark of 
the hemlock (Ahics canadimtis). which is sold here at $1 75 to $2 a cord '. 

t 1 am aware that t'> "manufacture" is to make by hand, but I use the word in its popular and more gen- 
eral si"r)iti('aiion. It would have been better to have compounded a word from the Latin mnchina and 
facio (inachinfaclurc lo signify made by machinery, and thus expressed the two ideas by properly de- 
rived and definitive words. 

II Thi.s word " cash-i)ay " is one of mighty import in the regulation of prices in the interior, where a very 
cencral (but now decreasing) system of barter prevails, ami under which Wealth too often dictates to 
Want leltnt it shall receive for its labor, and also prescribes the prices of the commodities in which it pays. 

5 Home-made fabri<^s are usually stronuer and wear better than those made by machinery, (or, in other 
words maniifartiirid cloths outwear mac.kinfactnred ones !) but this is not necessarily so. The several 
processes can be done undoubtedly, aiui probably, generally are more perfectly by machinery than by 
hand. But in machine-made cloths the yarn is commonly s()un finer, so there is less stock in a yard. And 
they are submitted to processes, described in a previous Note, which farther impair their strength. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 89 

I $1,500 will set up a carding and cloth-dressing factory, which, with 
Ithree good hands, will turn off 50 yards of cloth per diem. By Table I. 
lit appears that in 1839 there were but 114 of these factories south of the 
Potomac and west of the Mississippi, doing an annual business of $320,- 
|93S, while in the single State of New-York there were 323 factories, doing 
'an annual business of $3,537,337 ! Of the 114 Southern factories 66 were 
^ in the States of Kentucky and Tennessee; 41 in Virginia; 3 in each of 
Ithe Carolinas ; 1 in Georgia, and in the remaining four, none ! 

The number is decreasing in New-York, as manufactories of the com- 
iiTion fabrics, worn by farmers and other laboring men, are increasing' in 
; every direction — many of them doing custom-work either at the halves, 
or at a fixed sum per yard — and all of them exchanging cloth for wool. 
iBy either of these methods, the cloth can be obtained as cheaply, perhaps 
'cheaper, than to manufacture it in families. But circumstanced as you 
;are at the South, you can, as before asserted, manufacture more cheaply 
!by hand (excepting carding, fulling and dressing), than to import vour 
slave cloths at present prices, if provided with factories to perform the ex- 
cepted processes. Where the institution of slavery exists, and where 
ispinning, weaving, etc., can be done in those intervals of bad weather 
when the time of laborers would otherwise be entirely thrown away, it is 
jdoubtful whether any extension of even the coarse cloth manufactories 
would, or ought to, in an economical point of view, banish the home-made 
article. If we count the slave labor thus saved, one-half the value of free 
laboz", and dispense with the fulling and dressing* (which we usually dis- 
pensed with in manufacturing domestic slave cloths, in the interior of the 
iCarolinas, Georgia, etc.), the cloth would cost but 20 cents a yard, and the 
dyeing might carry it to 22 cents. Let one-half the fabric be made of cot- 
ton, and the cost would be still farther reduced.t 



Since the above was written, I have received the samples of Welsh 
plains, Chelmsford plains, and slave blankets forwarded by you. None of 
these goods exceed in quantity the estimate I have put upon them in my 
'preceding remarks. 

The Welsh plain v/!iich you state cost 65 cents per yard by the piece, 
|!(32 inches wide,) is about the thickness of rather heavy — but not the 
heaviest — sheep's gray. It is not, however, by many shades, so close and 
jfirm a cloth, for the want of equal fulling ; and perhaps even this would 
not give it equal firmness, by reason of the Joose twist of the yarn. The 
yarn is considerably coarser, (larger in diameter,) than that ordinarily em- 
ployed in sheep's gray — but it derives no inconsiderable portion of its 
bulk (which gives the cloth its thickness) from the loose and imperfect man- 
Iner in which it was twisted in spinning. This is particularly th*e case 
with the Jill i?ig, which you can scarcely detach from even so open a web, 
■without its breaking in pieces. Accoi'dingly, the cloth tears very easily 
^engthicise, for that presenting such an apparent amount of stock. 
I With a sufficient amount of fulling, dyeing, (it is white,) and a little 
'gigging and shearing — or simply luushing — it would become identical in 

* But still you want cardins-machincs, to cnril the woo! ; for, by hand.it ip a i:low and expfnpive process. 
1 1 1 was shown a new article of satinets a day or two since It was double or broadcloth width, black, 
|Hnii the cotton warp dyed black, and could only be distineuished from a very fair |)iecp of black broad- 
jcloth by examining the cut edge. The manufacturer stated that the cotton warp weiirhed but .3 oz. per 
jyard ; but I do not credit the assertion. One is strongly inclined to suspect that a cloth of this character 
icould not have been "got up" for any very legitimate purpose, but that it belongs in the wooden-nutmeg 
[end horn-flint category ! 

The ordinary satinet, when well made, is a profitable, cheap cloth. 

M 



90 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ! 

appearance with heavy sheep's gray, excepting in the quality of the 

wool. That is inferior to any I ever saw in a single piece of the former. ! 

It appears to be of two qualities, the finest about like the Asia Minor or \ 

African ("Smyrna" or " Mogadore ") wools; and this intermixed with ! 

occasional still coarser sharp p^ointed hairs, which could come only from v 

an animal not many removes I'rom the wild Argali.* In both, there is a ' 

peculiarly dry, harsh, wiry feeling, not found in North American wools, I! 

and which is more indicative of an inferior staple — of brittleness, and want li 

of felting properties — than even their coarseness. The staple is not appa- 1^ 

rently a very long one. I conjecture that it is Iceland wool — or that, ] 

mixed with Orkney, or some of the coarsest short or medium staple wools ' 

of Scotland. 'i 

The Chelmsfords, (31 inches wide,) twilled, undyerl,t cost, you infonn 'I 

me, 58 cents per yard. The plain article, (/. e. untwilled,) 28 inches wide, -| 

costs 50 cents per yard. The sample of the twilled, forwarded by you, is I 
a thicker, decidedly stronger cloth, with larger and far more tightly 
twisted yarn, than the sample of Welsh plains. The wool is of about the 
same quality, though at first view it strikes you as decidedly coarser, as 
the longer nap shows more of the coarse fibres on the surface, and these 
are rendered more conspicuous still by their variety of color. But on re- 
solving portions of each cloth back into unmanufactured wool, I can detect 
little or no difference in its fineness, unless it be that the stock of the 
Chelmsford plains possesses none of those peculiarly coai'se fibres or hairs 
which characterize the other. The wool used in the Chelmsfords is ap- 
parently of a longer staple. It is probably South American, though it 

may be Smyrna or Mogadore, as it bears a strong resemblance to the wool Jj 

of the broad-tailed sheep of Asia and Africa. You state that the Welsh Ij 

is generally thought to outwear the Chelmsford plain. This may be true jJ 

of the ordinary articles, but I think it cannot be of the samples forwarded. | 

Of these, the latter possesses nearly double the strength of the former, jj 

and is much the heaviest cloth. | 

The slave blanket, 6 feet 11 inches long, by 6 feet 5 inches wide, weigh- \ 

ing 41 lbs., you state cost about $3 12i by the piece (a piece containing | 

16 blankets costs S50). It is manufactured of a very coarse and a long I 

stapled wool — not much fulled — with a long nap raised on both surfaces. \ 

The wool in quality resembles that used in the Chelmsfords. '! 

On the receipt of these samples, I forwarded a specimen of the Welsh j 

plains to two manufacturers of experience and perfect pecuniary respon- J 

sibility, asking them at what price per yard they would contract to furnish J 

me 100,000 yards of cloth of the same style and equal quality with the B 

sample. The question was put to both of these gentlemen and received \ 

by them, as purely a commercial one — the opening of a commercial nego- :i 

tiation. Each stood ready to enter immediately on the fulfillment of a || 

contract, based on his offer. .(' 

The following is the answer of one of the above named gentlemen : i; 

Henby S. Randall, Esq. Moreisville, N. Y., April 20, 1847. > i 
Dear Sir : Yours of the 13th is at hand and duly noticed. I have no wool of the quality of the l^i 
eamiile sent, and do not wish to work foreia:n wool. I would like to make for you 100,000 yards I 
like the sample, out of our American or domestic wool. I would make it as thick and tight as the |1 
sample sent, 32 inchc* wide, at 40 cents per yard. I could not say how much loss it would cost ' : 
to get up the article fiom the same kind of wool with that used in the sample. I do not know ''' 
what that kind of wool is now worth in market. I have not worked any of it for two vears past. ' 
Yours, truly, C. TILLINGHAST. 'I 

* Many of the unimproved breeds have, as is common with wild animals, a coating of hair over a finer pe. j 
lage beneath, nnil it is dittioult to perfectly separate them. 

t A small portion of the wool emp1oye<l in the tilling is black, giving the cloth a diny drab or aeb coloi; j 
But this I lake to be the natural color of the wool. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 91 



The first answer of the other manufacturer, S. Newton Dexter, Esq. of 
kVhitestown, Oneida Co., N. Y., (head of the Oriskany Manufacturing 
pompany,) it is not necessary to transcribe entire. Mr. Dexter infonned 
ine that his machinery is calculated for the manufacture of fine cloth ; that 
ilie cai'ding of coarse wool would injure his cards; that its manufacture 
Ivould throw him out of his regular course of business ; that he had no 
Ivool of the quality used in the sample on hand ; that he should be com- 
|)elled to use domestic wool ; and that for these reasons and some others 
named by him, he could not undertake to fill the contract at less than 42 
;ents per yard — which he knew would be considered a high price. 

Mr. Dexter being a gentleman equally distinguished for his correct and 
iible business character, and for that capacity and range of information 
[vhich give value to his opinions on all the topics connected with this in- 
vestigation, I addressed him a second communication, asking him what he 
'■,ould manufacture the cloth for, giving him time to procure stock of the 
jame quality used in the sample. I also inclosed him proof-sheets of the 
(Preceding part of this letter, asking him liis opinion of the correctness of 
|iny statements, in relation to the general cost of manufactvn-ing, &c. The 
.jollowing extracts from his reply will be read with interest : 

'j^ol. Henky S. Randall : Whitestown, April 24, 1847. 

Dear Sir: Yours reached me on Wednesday. There is no doubt at all but what if I felt cer- 
ijSin that wool could be procured of the quality of which your sample was made, at a price pro- 
•ortionably low, 1 could have atKn-ded to have manufactured the cloth at 37 cents per yard, as 

Kell as at 42, and use our coarse native wool, at a probable cost of 25 cents There has been 

In advance of more than 70 per cent, in the price of lard oil. The price a short time since was 
i5 cents. The last I bought cost 95 cents in New-York. Five quarts of this oil are wanted to 

I very 80 yards of these cloths I cannot imagine where the wool was from ontof wliich the 

lample was ma<le, probably from Iceland — for I recollect some twenty years ago the Oi'iskany 
•lanufacturing Company obtained just such wool somewhere, when American wool vv-as deemed 
pu high, and manufactured it into miserable satinets, by wliich they lost a great deal of money. 
iChe wool was said to have been imported from Iceland. 1 was one of the Directors of the mill 

lien, but had nothing to do with " operating "it 

You request my opinion as to the correctness of your statements of the probable cost of Welsh 
•laiiis, &c., and generally of the statements put forth by you on the subject of woollen manufac- 
jiories. I am not reri/ good authority as to the co.st of manufacturing coarse woolen.s, never hav- 
cg done much in that way. I am free to say, liowever, that your estimates may generally be 
elied on. Cei'tainly you have allowed liberally for what would have been the co,st of such wool 
?y the pound last year ; but I think your estimate of 17 j^ oz. of wool in the ileece, out of which to 
uauufacture one yard of cloth 32 inches wide, similar to the sample inclo.sed in your letter, too 
;DW. I should think it would certainly take 20 oz., or \\ pounds. The allowance of 11 cents for 
nauufacturing will, I am inclined to think, pay charges, but it will not afford any profit, nor in- 
erest on capital, nor leave anything for keeping machinery in repair. It is a very close calcula- 
ion, when fuller's soap, lard oil, &c., are so high. 

The sheep's gray cloths that you speak of. you will ob.serve, are generally not quite | wide — 
[lay 26 inches — while the sample you sent me was 32 inches. One pound of well washed fleece 
Ivool will make a jard of sheep's gray of medium quality ; but unless the goods are Jlockcd, the 
alculation is a very close one indeed. 
I am inclined to think that you overestimate the profit of manufacturing woolen goods, although 
admit that in well-managed institutions, that have the most improved machinery, with an abun- 
lant capital, the profits have, at times, been very large indeed, and our friend Samuel Law- 
*;nce, of whom you speak, is the mo.st prominent example of such a manufacturer within my 

Knowledge Every new manufactory erected, if built with judgment, has one advantage 

•ver those already in operation, and that is, they have availed them,selves of all the improvements 
•ftho.se in operation. And as machinery is constantly being produced at cheaper rates, a factory 

»f increa.sed capacity will probably have cost less money 

The Oriskany Manufacturing Company is the oldest company now manufacturing woolen 
Ifoods in the United State.s. They have made satinets which have .sold readily at $3 50 per yard, 
ind have made cloths which have as readily sold for $12 per yard. Satinets full as good' can 
i.iow be bought at 75 cents, and handsomer, if not better cloths, for $3. What a change is here ! 
l^nd yet the Ori-skany Manufacturing Company was perhaps never doing better than now. This 
pompany availed itself of the opportunities offered last year to obtain wool very low, to purchase 
I supply for nearly two j-ears. This year the business will be good, that is, pay a profit of 10 per 
pent, on investments, even where wool is |mrchased at current rates ; but I do not believe it will 
|uay more. I will furnish you with a brief estimate : 



92 SHEEP IIUSfiANDRY IN THE SOUTH. \ 

— ^ ■ — •'' 

A mill with a cnpiml of $100,000 will maminicnive. say 90,000 yards of 6-4 cloth, which 

will liiinir in inaiUct an avi-iaso ofSl SO per yard, nr $235,000 

To i-ft Ihcso clmhs inti) cash (for lliey arc sold at 8 mouths, and are charged 
wTdi cDinniissinn of.") per cent., and other charges etLUal, in all, including in- 
terest, hoxiiiaand transportation, to I'J per cenf. $16,200 

Cobl of 22."),0tlirilis. of wool at 30 cents 67,500 

:i.:iUU gallons sperm and lard oil at $1 3.:i()0 

.. Soap, soft and hard 3,500 

.. t^OlUKlU teazles 1,000 

DveiiiL' materials of all kinds 11.5(10 

.. Fuel.: 1.000 

Paper, tape, twine, nails, luniber. cards, candles, ifcc 3,000 

'.'. Labor, $5,000 per quarter, or 20.000 

.. insurance 2,(X)0 

Total $122,000 

If I were under oalli. I do not believe I should alter any of these items — or, at least, I should 
add as often a.s I dimini.shed, I liavc no doubt. You may think $1 50 a low average for cloths, 
but it must be a very fair cloth to bring that sum, I assure you. You may also think 12 per cent. '' 
a high charge lor getting these cloths into cash. &c.. but it is scarcely what we pay. And then 
records of our wool book will show tiiat :iO cents is the cost of such wool as we work. And our 
books will prove that it has taken, for many years pa.st, 2^ lbs. of wool to make a yard of broad- 
cloth. There is 13 per cent, left for protits here, because 1 have not allowed one cent for repairs f. 
or taxes, or for the agents' salaries, which will swell the expenses fully up to $124,500 — within a 
fraction of swallowing up all over 10 per cent .... Well, I admit that 10 per cent, is a great 

business ; but you speak of 15, and that is goiiitr too far I 

Very respectfully your friend and obedient servant, S. NEWTON DEXTER. 

It will be seen from the foregoing letter.s : i 

1st. Tliat where their machinery is adapted to it, manufacturers are will- ' 
ino- to make and sell goods of the same amount of stock and style of 
manufacture, with Welsh plains, out of domestic wool for 40 cents per 
yard ; and that manufacturers of perfect pecuniary responsibility are ready J 
to contract so to furnish it. This (apart from the small item of transporta- 
tion) is ticcntij-jioe cents per yartl, or about thirty-nine jyer cent, cheaper 
than yon now obtain these cloths : and an article manufactured from do- 
mestic wool would, by reason of the far superior strength and felting prop- 
erty of the stock, be much stronger and more durable than the foreign 
goods. 

2d. It will be farther seen that a skillful and responsible manufacturer 
would furnish cloth, conesponding with Welsh plains, at '61 cents per yard, 
could he procure the same quality of wool now employed in the manufac- 
ture of tliose chttlis at a price proportionably low with domestic wools, 
calling the latter 25 cents per pound. 

Blankets are manufactured at equally exorbitant profits ; and the 
Chelmsfords, paying less transportation and no duties, approach the same 
standard of profit — though, judging from your samples, I consider them 
the cheapest goods. 

I have given Mr. Dexter's undoubtedly fair and candid statements in 
the premises — my object in these letters being, as I once before have 
stated, to arrive at truth, and not to support a favorite hypothesis, or to 
maintain, at all hazards, preconceived views. 

My own estimates and those of Mr. Dexter, of the actual cost of manu- 
facturing Welsh plains, it will be seen, differ — but not so materially as 
would as finst appear, when the advance of wool, soap, oil, &;c., are taken 
into consideration. I have no doubt that, in making his estimates, he had 
his eye more on the better and more elaborate machinery of his own mills 
— the more expensive and perfect performance of the various manufactur- 
ino" processes common in that class of establishments, than on the cheaper 
machinery and processes necessary in the manufacture of coarse goods. 
My estimates, or rather statements of cost of manufacturing sheep's gray, 
you will recollect, were given on supposed actual knowledge of what a 
maTUifacturer of these goods had made them at. To these Mr. D. seems 
to take no exceptions. 

In relation to the shrinkage of wool, Mr. Dexter undoubtedly bases his 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 93 



-)pmion mainly on his own experience in manufacturing broad and other 
hloths of fine quaUty. In these, the shrinkage of the wool from the fleece 
IS concededly at least half. And the firm, well finished and honestly made 
Di-iskany cloths, I have no doubt require the highest rate of shrinkage in 
ihe stock. But Mr. D. concedes that a " pound of fleece wool will make a 
kard of sheep's gi'ay of medium quality." Now the Welsh plain, of the 
Quality of the sample, weighs 13 oz. per yard. As I have already stated, 
^^the ordinary weight of the sheep's gray "is from the weight of the "Welsh 
Dlain to 16 oz. per yard." Thus a yard of " medium " sheep's gray out- 
iveighs a yard of the Welsh plain. If this is so, the former, of course, re- 
l^uires the greatest amount of stock, the mere width making no difference 
;A'hatever. Mr. Dexter was led into this eiTor, evidently, by overesti- 
mating the u-eight of the Welsh plains — and this arose from the smallness 
|jf the sample submitted for his inspection. 

' His statement of the cost of manufacturing broadcloths by the Oriskany 
I'^ompany is entitled, I have no doubt, to the fullest reliance. In conse- 
jjuence of his remarks on this topic I have changed a statement in the 
[receding part of this letter alluded to by him, for fear it might convey an 
lirroneous idea. Where I spoke of " existing establishments declaring 
lividends of ffteen per cent.," I have changed it, so that it now reads 
j from ten to Jifteen per cent.," these being the dividends, respectively, of 
lie Oriskany and Middlesex* Companies last year, and exhibiting about 
|iie range, probably, ®f well-managed companies. 

'i* Mr. Lawrence's great ostablishment at Lowell, which works up 1,700,000 lbs. of wool per annum. 



94 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER VIIL | 

i 

PROSPECTS OF THE WOOL MARKET— FUTURE DEMAND AJSTD SUPPLY. | 

Amount of Wool which may be grown in the Southern States. ..If the demand is already supplied, where | 
is ii to find a Mnrket?. . .The cheaper Producer can drive his rival ft-om the marliet, unless the disparity! 
of Capital is greatly against him. ..In Individual Capital, the Soulh possesses the advantage over thei,! 
Norlh. . .The South can produce Wool cheaper than New. York. . .North of latitude 41'" there will he little | 
ditt'erenre in the cost of producing Wool. . .Cost of producing it in New-England — Pennsylvania — New.Jeri | 
6ey — Ohio. . .The Prairies — Their vast Extent — Their anticipated Advantages for Sheep Hut^bandry — Flocks' 
driven on them — Anticipations blasted, so far as keeping Sheep economically on the Natural Grasses is con-' 
earned. . .Character of the Prairie Grasses — Flourish but during a short season, rendering the time of fodder- 
ing longer than even in New-England Another Difficulty — The Wild Grasses which the Sheep feed on 

rapidly become extirpated — Statement^ of theEditor of the Prairie Farmer confirmatory of this, and of the 
assertion in relation to the length of the time of Ibddering. . -His proposition to introduce Grasses which will 
^row in the fainter — Impracticability — Reasons. . .Burning over the Prairies— Objections. . .Indifterent^ 

quality of Prairie Hay Principal Advantages of the Prairies for Sheep Husbandry narrowed downt 

to two— Cheapness of Land — Privilege of Pasturing the Public Lands... The latter Advantage rapidly 
lessening. . . Cost of Preparing the Prairies for Sheep Husbandry — MHterials for Fences, Buildings and Fuel 
entirely wanting on the interior of them. . .Coal for Fuel plenty, but not economically available. . . Fences — | 
those of earth inadequate. . .Hedges — Require /cMces to protect them v.'\\i\e growing — Their success then 
doubtful. . .Timber may he grown for all of the above purposes, but would raise the cost of the land above 

those of the Sheep Lands of New-York and New-England The Shepherd System as a Substitute for,i 

Fences — When the Sheep become numerous, it would cost more to keep them in separate tiocks than : 
fences cost in the East. . .Pasturing in Common considered — The Sheep could not be separated for any j 
ordinary purpose of Sheep Hut-bandrj' — There would be no protection against theft, promiscuous inter- 1 

breeding, untimely impregnation — No way of effectually combating contagious disorders — Reasons Nat- 1 

Ural and unremovable Objections to the Prairies — Want of Water— A Clirante far more fickle and excessive'! 
than in the ICastern States. . .Shown by the record of the thermometrical observations kept at the Military 
Posts of the United States... These compared... Wool growing in Mexico — In South America. 'I 

i 

Dear Sir : In recommending the production of Wool on a scale so ex- ! 
tensive in the Southei'n States, as I have done in my preceding Letters,' 
the fact should not be lost sight of, that were these recommendations com- ! 
plied with, one of the great staples of commerce would be enormously 
increased. The Southern States — the ten* to which I have confined all] 
my preceding remarks and estimates — to say nothing of those in the same] 
latitudes tvest of the Mississippi — include an area of 450,000 square miles, j 
or 288,000,000 square acres. Allow one-eighth of this region to be in aj 
state of cultivation, i or in natural pastures, and we have 36,000,000 acres] 
which could be more or less devoted to the growth of wool. Assuming 
that, on the average, eveiy two acres would, under proper tillage, support] 
one sheep, (which, it seems to me, they might do with no very material, 
diminution of present staples,) and that the sheep average 3 lbs. per fleece, 1 
the annual product of wool would be 54,000,000 lbs. This amount might 
be indefinitely added to, by diminishing the production of present staples. j 
How far this could be economically done, experience must determine. 3 

If we concede the adequacy of the present supply of wool to the demand, j 
^aking the world together, it is apparent that an increase of 50, 75, or 100 1 
millions of pounds, in one quarter, will produce an over-supply, (and thus 
greatly depress prices,) unless met by an increased demand, or a con-e-^ 
sponding diminution in production, in some other quarter. I do not concede 
the adequacy of the present supply, but shall, however, waive that point. ! 

The question now arises, where is the wool thus produced to find a 
market, if the South should, within the next ten, fifteen, or twenty years. 

* Nine, besides that portion of Louisiana east of the Mississippi ^ 

t Probably the amount in cultivation, including that in natural pasture, is set down pretty high. It ms}^ 
not exceed a tenth. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 95 



[uraish such a surplus 1 Where is the present supply to be diminished, 

)r the demand increased 1 

Where agricultural competition exists, as a matter of course the pro- 
ducer who can supply the market with the least expense to himself, has 
m advantage which nothing but a disparity greatly against him in capital 
pan overcome. Large capital, satisfied with less gains than small capital, 
^-ill sometimes sustain competition with the latter, with the advantages of 
!lie cheapness of production somewhat against it. But where the differ- 
ence in first cost is considerable, the cheaper producer can always drive 
us rival from the market. The aggregate agricultural capital in a region 
/f given size in New-York, probably would ordinarily exceed that of an 
l^qual territory in South Carolina or Georgia. But it is not so with indi- 
vidual or personal capital. While the agricultural territory and capabilities 
\i the latter States are in a comparatively few hands, those of New- York 
|ind New-England are parceled out among a multitude of small holders, 
vho must realize the first class of agricultural profits, to support them- 
jPlves and their families. The advantage of capital is therefore, in reality, 
■In the side of the South. 

j But independent of this consideration, I have already attempted to show 
hat the South can produce wool so much cheaper than New- York, that 
pe latter will stand no chance whatever in competing with her more 
lavored rival — so soon as that rival sees fit to avail herself of her advan- 
tages. North of latitude 40° there will he hut little disparity in the cost of 
arodncing wool ; and therefore if the South can drive New- York to relin- 
iiiish the production of this staple, she can do the same with all portions 
f the United States lying north of this parallel, unless on the shores of the 
*acific, where the isothermal line is at least 5° north of its course east of 
he Missouri. I will now enter upon some specifications, and, where ne- 
essary, proofs, to sustain this proposition. 

New-England has, concededly, no advantages over New-York for the 
heap production of wool. Northern Pennsylvania is higher, colder, and 
lore sterile than most of southern New- York. South-eastern Pennsyl- 
ania, and the fertile portions of New-Jersey, are the natural producers of 
read-stuffs for the less favored regions of those States, and of provisions 
f all kinds for the New-York City and Philadelphia markets. The high 
rice which good lands bear in the vicinity of such markets, would prevent 
lem from competing with cheap interior lands in wool-growing. There 
re sheep lands of good quality in western Pennsylvania; and in the 
imthern section, the winters are perceptibly a little shorter than in New- 

ork. This will render the production of wool upon them somewhat 
!ss expensive than in the latter State, but it will not reduce it low enough 
) allow them to compete with the cheaper lands and still shorter win- 
prs of the South. The same remarks will apply to the hilly region can 
ituting the south-eastern portion of Ohio. 

I Proceeding still farther west, we find a region extending to a vast distance 
^■hose topographical and geological features, flora, &c., taken in connec- 
on,^ effectua.lly distinguish it from the territory lying east of the Missis- 

ppi and Ohio. Vast plains, called prairies, (so named by the early French 
j3ttlers from the French word signifying meadow,) which can be purchased 
If the Government in the natural state for Si 25 per acre, and which are 
Bually covered with natural grasses — would seem, if these grasses are 
jdapted to the summer and winter subsistence of sheep, and there are no 
punterbalancing disadvantages, to unite facilities for the cheap production 
f w-ool not possessed in any other region of our country. And such supe- 
^ority has actually and often been claimed for them. 



96 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

■ ] ] ^ '^ 

I propose to investigate this question at considerable length, because there' 
are various considerations which, at first view, give great plausibility to this, 
claim. And if the prairies can produce wool cheaper than the South, it ist 
in vain for the latter to embark in the business — at least, beyond the ex- ■ 
tent of supplying the home demand — for so limitless is the extent of these 
natural pastures throughout the whole northern basin of the Mississippi, j 
that they could, perhaps, supply the entire market demand of the United 
States for this staple, for an indefinite period, vast as that demand is des- 
tined to be. 

But a very few years have elapsed since the most sanguine anticipations' 
were indulged in, by large numbers of our Noithern and Eastern flock- 
masters, in relation to the superior capabilities and advantages of the prai- ' 
ries over Eastern lands for sheep-walks; and large flocks were driven hun- 
dreds of miles, lands purchased, and establishments created, to realize i 
these supposed advantages. It is not too much to say that these anticipa-j 
tions — so far at least, as keeping sheep on the natural herbage of the prai- 
ries is concerned, were briefly and summarily blasted. Many of the flocks' 
driven there, actually perished in the midst of seeming plenty. On the ^ 
whole, the experiment is generally conceded to have resulted in failure, s 
Let us see whether this was occasioned by mismanagement — temporary' 
and removable causes — or whether we must look for those causes in na- 1 
tural and unchangeable circumstances. I 

A])ortio>i of the wild prairie grasses are relished by sheep, and they thrive ! 
on them ; but these grasses, as well as all the other varieties growing there, ti 
flourish during but an unusually limited portion of the season. They be- 4! 
gin to dry up and lose their nutritive qualities in midsummer, and long be-, j 

foi'e the fodderinff season has commenced on the bleakest highlands of J 

. li 

New-England, they are as unfit for the subsistence of sheep, as dry brush f ,1 

Where the natural grasses are alone depended upon, the foddering season i\ 

on the prairies, north of latitude 40°, will range from six to seven months ij 

— rarely, perhaps, fall short of six, on lands which have been previously \ 

depastured, provided the sheep are maintained in good condition. | 

And there is another material difficulty with the prairie grasses which j 

sheep feed on. They soon — many of them even in a single season — be- i 

come extirpated if kept fed down while growing. This is so singular a [j 

fact in vegetable physiology, that I chose to state it in the words of an in- l' 

telhgent i-esident of the jJi'airie region — whose local pride and partiali- i 

ties would naturally prompt him to give as favorable a coloring to the ij 

agricultural advantages of his chosen home, as a regard for truth would J 

admit of. From a communication of J. Ambrose Wight, Esq., Editor of j 

the Prairie Farmer, to L. A. Morrel* — replete with useful information, 

and characterized by an admirable candor — I make the followins: extracts : 

■' Sheep or other stock, but more particularly the former, put upon a given piece of wild ' 
prairie, and confined to it, unless the range be very large, would not continue to keep ■' 
fat one season after another, though they would at first ; but if allowed a new range each ' 
season, they would always keep fat. The reason is this : Sheep in such cases will go over ' 
their range and select such food as they prefer, and will keep at it until it is gone. Hence |l 
the wild bean and pea vine, and a few other kinds of plants, will obtain their constant at-.p 
tentions, and will be kept so short that they will, on a given piece of land, die out the first ,■ 
year. Therefore if turned out on the same grounds another season, the best food will be 
gone, and the poorer, with which they must then take up, and which itself gets continually j 
poorer, will not sustain them in their first condition. A small flock of sheep will thus run I'i 
over a large extent of ground. ,i; 

HiMice the utter hollowness of a supposition which appears to be common at the Eist, |' 
that large flocks of sheep can be sustained on the wild grass of the prairies alone. There '' 
are many places, it is true, where a farmer might keep a lai-ge flock on the wild prairic-s '\ 



' American Shepherd, pp. 138—145. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 97 

Juring the summer months with profit, provided he had not too many neighbors in the 
same business. But such flocks would conrinually lessen their own range, at the same time 
Uiat it is lessening by immigration, settlement and extended culture. I have been in the coun- 
py about nine years; having gone, at the first, into an entirely unsettled region, and have 
aaid much attention to the matter ; and it is my belief that the wild prairies are desirable 
"or wool-growing to a very limited degree ; but that the cultivated prairies are desirable for 
[his purpose to an almost limitless extent." 

The following fully sustains my preceding statements in relation to the 
time of foddering. In answer to Mr. Morrel's question, " what length of 
.fime is foddering necessary in Northern Illinois ]" Mr. Wight says : 

I " The seasons have been extremely variable since my residence here — ^now nearly nine 
/ears. The winter of 1842 and '43 was the severest one since the settlement of the State; 
'jind the foddering season lasted from the middle of October to the middle of April. The 
winter of 1843 and '44, and the present one (1844-5) would require foddering for a less time 
jj)y full two months. This is on (he snpposition, however, thai good artijieial pasturase 
lis jirovided. If the wild prairies are relied on alone for pasture and hay, full two months 
Iniist be added to the foddering season ; and stock would barely get throuizh at that ; and I 
ijliink that sheep, in multitudes of instances, would perish. In this latitude with Timothy, 
ked-top and Clover pastures, the average time would be from 4^ to 5 months. If a ■^ood 
;olue-grass [)asture were provided, in such winters as the last and present, it might be reduced 
10 two mouths, and I am told that some so provided for, one hundred miles south of here, 
ijiave, the present winter, scarcely foddered at all. I apprehend, however, that our winters 
jjere will always be variable, and that it will be far more difficult to predict their lenoth 
l|ind intensity than in New-England." 

j In another place Mr. Wight says : 

'• " If, however, the question is asked, ' Does not the pasture on the prairies fail early in au- 
lumn, so as to compel the removal of sheep to other pasture before it is time to go into winter 
jiiarters 1' I answer, yes — long before. In many sections the prairies affbixl no adequate 

)asture for dairy purposes after the first of September The wild grasses are extreme- 

iy vigorous while they last, but are all, without an exception, short-lived." 

j The great diminution of the foddering season, where the domestic or 
pultivated grasses are already made use of, which Mr. W. anticipates may 
••esult from the introduction of blue-grass, will be found utterly unattain- 
able. Blue-grass (known as June or spear grass), is one of the common- 
]pst varieties in New- York and New-England. Peoria, in Illinois, is in 
ibout the same latitude with the City of New-York, and consequently that 
coition of Illinois north of Peoria, corresponds with a considerable portion 
pf New- York, and all of Connecticut and Rhode Island. And the climate 
if the former is not less riejorous, and is far more variable, than in tlie lat- 
er named States, as I shall presently show. Now in no portion of New- 
i:^ork or New-England will the blue-grass reduce the foddering season to 
wo months, or anything like it. It is true that small flocks will pick iip 
ji subsistence on this and other grasses in the winter, when the orrnund is 
lot covered with snow, and if the pastures are not fed down in the fall. To 
.uppose, however, that this or any other herbage will continue to grow, 
ivhen the earth is frozen almost to the consistency of a solid rock, far be- 
■ow its lowest iX)ots, is an obvious error. In New- York, the ground remains 
;o frozen usually during the entire winter, and in Northern Illinois the cold 
s equally intense, and there is less snow to protect the earth from its ef- 
*ects. The ground, therefore, is frozen quite as solidly, and considerably 
ileeper than in the former. Grass left standing for winter consumption, 
n either State, becomes, by fi-eezing and thawing, tough and innutritions. 
-n New-York, the larger flock-masters have long since ceased to make any 
provision of this kind, for winter-feeding — preferring to keep their sheep 
n yards, and entirely from grass. 

I As Mr. Wight himself very accurately remarks in another part of his 
pommunication, " It is found to be decidedly better to keep sheep up in 
small flocks, with very little ground to run over, while kept on hay, than 



98 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

to let them run out a part of the time and get such grass as they can pick, ■ 
while there is not enough to sustain them." But the reason for this given r 
by Mr. W., that " they eat much dirt, are liable to be poisoned and lo^e ! 
their appetite for hay," is very far from being the coiTect one. Green ; 
grass always, in a great measure, deprives sheep of their appetite for dry i 
hay. The grass thus left standing loses its nutritive qualities, so that it ' 
will but imperfectly sustain animals, and when the snow falls and covers , 
it, sheep not only cannot obtain it, but they are -left without appetite for 
other food. Open winters, i, e., winters without snow, are always particu- 
larly fatal to sheep which are suffered to run on the pastures, in this "i 
climate, and for the reasons above assigned. They sometimes appear to 
be doing well enough up to toward the close of February ; but they are 
imperceptibly losing condition and strength, and when the trying month 
of March, with its stormy and fickle weather, sets in, they begin to drop i 
off, and all sorts of diseases — grub in the head, " the distemper," etc. — are ; 
assigned as the causes. 

It is in vain to attempt to shorten the foddering season north of latitude 
40°, on this side of the Rocky Mountains, by seeking for any plant to con- 
tinue its growth and thus prodtice green feed in winter, unless in limited ■ 
districts, and on the margins of large bodies of water. No plant can ,; 
draw its nutriment from solidly frozen ground, i 

Mr. Wight proposes burning over portions of the prairies at intervals, , 
to cause the vegetation to start afresh, and thus prolong the grazing sea- 7 
son on the prairies. Mr. Flower makes the same suggestion. In some 
localities, and under favorable circumstances, this might, temporarily, ac- 1 
complish the desired object ; but as population increases, and buildings 1 
and inclosures are erected, it would constantly lead to those unfortunate 
accidents, which have already, I believe, led at least one of the Western 
States to prohibit by severe penal enactments, the setting fire to the dead 
grass of the prairies. Besides, we have Mr. Wight's own authority for 
stating that sheep actually extirpate those of the prairie grasses which they 
will feed on, so that burning over could not cause these to re-sprout the 
same season or afterward. 

It requires but little knowledge of the habits of the sheep to know that 
grasses rejected by it in summer, will not constitute a proper aliment for 
it in winter, and that if confined to such food, it will not prosper. A few 
sheep with liberty to pick and waste, will live on very inferior herbage in \ 
either summer or wintei", (and hence the sanguine and erroneous state- >| 
ments put forth by owners of small flocks on the prairies,) but confine [| 
flocks to the same food — flocks which are too numerous to be allowed the ji 
privilege of selection and rejection in their food, and the disastrous conse- j 
quences will not be long in exhibiting themselves. 

In reviewing the preceding facts, the principal advantages of the prai- ; | 
ries fi)r the production of wool seem to be narrowed down to two points : j 
the cheapness and fertility of the lands, with a contingent right inuring to 
the settler to use, without paying for it, all the unappropriated public do- li 
main ! If we admit that the soil of the prairies is as well adapted to the ! 
artificial grasses as that of New- York or New-England, (a point which, to ii, 
say the least of it, is doubtful, for experience has shown it to be other- 1;| 
wise in Michigan and some other portions of the West,) the only peculiar |j 
and exclusive advantages which the prairies have over the lands of tliCir 
old Middle and Eastern States, is their cheapness and freedom from rentfj 
where unsettled. Emigration is rapidly abridging the latter privilege,'! 
however — more rapidly than can well be appreciated without a reference 1 
to the statistics of the several new North-western States. And it will be . 1 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 99 

iremembered that when a prairie is belted round by population, and de 
pastured by numerous flocks and herds, its better grasses — at least for 
f sheep — would be soon exterminated, and, consequently, though there 
ilmight be ten or fifty thousand acres of common and free pasturage, it 

rould be of trifling avail to the flock-master. 
But taking this privilege for what it is worth, and taking into account 
fjthe difference in the price of lands — calling one $1 25, and the other $20 
her acre — and then, in my judgment, the Eastern will prove cheaper, all 
"Ithings considered, than the prairie lands, for Sheep Husbandry. I speak, 
ibf course, of the prairies as wholes — not of that narrow margin of each, 
(|vvhich is attached to the farms lying partly on the outer and wooded lands. 
!i| The prairies must first be plowed, undoubtedly,* to seed them down ef- 
ifectually with the cultivated grasses. It requires from four to six yoke of 
ijpxen, says Mr. Solon Robinson, to break up from one to one and a half 
jacres per diem. Suppose we concede this expense to be paid for by the 

first grain crop used as a covering for the grass ; then the prairies are to 
16 fenced — adequate buildings and other fixtures provided, for the use of 
ia family, the storage of hay, the shelter of animals, &c. Where are the 
l|materials for these things and for fuel to be found, on a plain wholly' desti- 
ijitute of trees, unless on the occasional " islands" — and where stones are 
Entirely wanting, excepting sparsely scattered bowlders, and, very rarely, 
t!|rocky ridges or cliffs ] Conceding that all the wood on the margins of the 
prairies will not be wanted for the local supply — which, as a general thing, 
'fit undoubtedly will — what would be the cost of fences, buildings and fuel, 
Where every stick was transported from three to fifteen milest by land 
^carriage 1 Fuel, it has been said, can be obtained from the local deposi- 
tions of coal. It is true that Illinois and south-western Indiana, at least, 
■■constitute one vast coal basin. But any one possessing the slightest prac- 
'tical acquaintance with the subject, knows that it requires associated, ag- 
'^regate and corporate wealth, to carry on mining operations to an extent 
'jsuflnicient to steadily and efficiently supply a considerable market. Even 
|ln a level country where coal is covered with a deep superficial deposi- 
tion of earth, individuals may, where the stratum is cut through or uncov- 
ered in ravines or the beds of streams, quarry their own coal ; but such 
'opportunities are rare. The idea that individuals would find it within the 
'compass of their means to sink vertical shafts and raise coal — each one 
■ for himself — on the bosoms of the prairies, is utterly preposterous. Coal 
has never yet borne a price in our cities, which would justify even Compa- 
inies in lifting it by vertical shafts. Let the coal, however, be as cheap as 
\t may be, at the points of excavation, the mere cartage of it, for the 
wants of a five-months winter — where the thermometer frequently indi- 
cates a degree of cold from 5° to 30° below 0° — will be an onerous tax 
on agricultural industry. And canals can never furrow the bosoms of 
most of those vast dry plains ; and ages must elapse before railroads will 
'bo interlace them, as to bring coal cheaply within the reach of population 
scattered over their entire surfaces. 

If we suppose that adequate buildings can be constructed, with suffi- 
cient economy, with transported timber, the question still remains. What 
resource is there for fences 1 Fences of earth have been proposed, but these 
"will not stand long enough to pay for building, unless their sides are con- 
structed at such an angle as would be wholly inadequate to " turn" sheep. 
Hedges, besides the other considerable expense of cultivating them, would 

* I have seen it stated that the seeds of the cultivated grasses would "catch " sowti on the surface of the 
prairie eod I That they would do this eftectually and generally, is an assertion which no practical farmer 
vill credit. 

t Prairies are from one to thirty milea in diameter. 

I ■ 



100 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

require Jences to protect the7n from animals, until they attained a consider- i 
ble size ; and it is exceedingly questionable whether any good hedge- ., 
plant can be found, which is capable of resisting the rigorous and fickle ; 
climate of the North-western States. The different thoTns, and other plants i 
used in England, have generally failed in all the Northern States. | 

Timber may be grown, both for fuel, houses and fences, by the proper r 
planting, cultivation and protection of suitable trees — but the expense and \ 
delay attending this course would raise the pi'airies to, or above the price \; 
of New- York and New-England sheep lands. [i 

It has been claimed that the shepherd system will render fences unne- ,;j 
cessary, to any but a very limited extent, on the prairies. Now, while there | 
is but here and there a settler on the margins of some of these great plains, , 
and while a flock of sheep can constantly seek new pasturage, as the old ] 
fails, over a boundless range, without encountering another man's flock, ,j 
sheep require so little looking after that the shepherd system is entirely .1 
feasible and economical, notwithstanding the high price of labor. Under ;{ 
Such circumstances, one man, provided with a horse and a brace of dogs,]] 
can perhaps give the necessary attention to 1,000 sheep, and have some ,; 
time for other occupations. But this state of things, terminated already on i 
most of the prairies this side of the Mississippi, will soon be unknovvTi ^ 
even on those in the territories bordering on the Missouri and its west- j 
ern tributaries. When wool-growers become to any degree numerous on j 
the borders of the prairies, (as they certainly soon will, if these regions do ii 
possess any peculiar advantages for this branch of husbandry,) how are ,i 
sheep to be kept separate, without tliac multitude of shepherds which the ji 
same services require in Spain, Germany, or Australia % — and whose labor Jl 
and subsistence* would cost more, during a series of years, than \he fences .\ 
in regions where wood and stone are plenty. 1 

If the sheep are not kept separate — if allowed to run promiscuously to- :j 
gether, how could the property of each holder be separated out of the vast \ 
general flock on a prairie five, ten or fifteen miles in mean diameter, for the ji 
purposes of slaughter, sale, washing, shearing, folding, or any other inci- ij 
dent of their husbandry ] What protection would there be against whole- ,1 
sale theft, when no man could count his scattered flock ] What would ,1 
prevent promiscuous interbreeding — and what object would it be, there- 1 
fore, to attempt to procure choice breeds, or improve those already pes- rij 
sessed ] What security would there be against those vagabond rams vj 
which the carelessness of some individual is always sure to let loose on,] 
a neighborhood, to beget lambs on every poorly-fenced farm, to perish in ; 
the storms of February and March It Finally, how could contagious,] 
and — unless promptly checked — highly malignant and fatal diseases, like ^ 
the scab and hoof-ail, be met with the proper vigor, and treated with the .; 
necessary skill and care, among a multitude of holders scattered over miles n 
of surface ; and supposing all the necessary vigor, skill and care brought ; 
into action, what would they all avail where it was impossible to sepa ,, 
rate the healthy from the diseased — the cured fi'om the sick % \ Let either 
of these diseases break out among a flock of ten thousand sheep, running A 
together without inclosures, and any one familiar with their diagnosis and i 
treatment, knows that if it were possible to drive them from the flock — 
which is extremely doubtful — it would cost far more than the value of the u 



* Costing four or perhaps six times more in this than in the former countries. 

t It is questionable whether in a flock running in common on a praiiie, one ewe in ten would escape 
untimt'ly impregnation. 

I Both of these diseases are susceptible of being communicated from a diseased sheep to one but 
recently cured of them ; consequently, separation is the only safe and economical method, in large flocks, 
to prevent constant reinoculation. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THlK SOUTH. lOl 

'heep. True, these diseases have not yet visited, so far I am aware, the 
^''estern States. The scab is, in fact, but little known at present in any 
-jart of the United States. It may at any time, however, reappear.* The 
2pof-ail, after the fury of its first onset is over, assumes a milder form — 
fae which does not lead to death, if remedies are applied but once or 
^ivice dui'ing a season — and for this reason, probably, it is allowed to 
^nger in many flocks in the sheep-growing regions of the U. S. It is a 
p[.rictly contagious disease, and one animal having it would rapidly innoc- 
lite, in the hot weather of summer, by itself and others receiving the dis- 
ease from it, one or five hundi-ed thousand sheep having access to each 
"ther. A few years since it was a stranger to this region. Like the small- 
Jbx when unchecked by vaccination, or any other contagious malady, it 
*adually progresses from neighboi'hood to neighborhood — from State to 
iitate. Good fences, confinement to the farm, and a rigorous system of 
Inclusion of all strange sheep, may and do save many flocks from its vis- 
^jaCion, but accidents and acts of carelessness are constantly occurring— 
ibd so long as they continue to occur, this malady will continue its on- 
i'ard march. I consider it just as certain that it will visit and sweep over 
f^jie North-western States, as I do that flocks are scattered along between 
■jbose States and the present seat of the disease. And when it does visit 
■|iem, if it finds any great flocks congregated on the prairies, not in a situ- 
'lion to be immediately divided into small flocks, I venture to predict that, 
%ith all the care and attention which the sheep will receive, the miserable 
Sjnimals, eaten while yet alive by maggots — and festering in loathsome 
■Dttenness, will perish in multitudes — by whole flocks.t 
I Another objection to pasturing in common, would arise in the difficulty, 
^i" not impracticability, of establishing and enforcing an equitable system 
|f joint occupancy, over or around a large prairie, so as to compel each 
l^rmer to regulate the number of his flocks and herds by the amount of cul- 
' vated pasture possessed by him. 

\ But if we concede all the preceding difficulties to be removable, or even 
lemoved ; if we suppose the great north-western plains to be amply sup- 
"lied with materials for building, fences, and fuel — there are two other dif- 
' culties in the way of their becoming the best class of sheep-walks, which, 
Irora their nature are fixed, and, in the main, unchangeable. I allude to 
'ae scarcity oftvater, and the climate. 

5 On the " dry and rolling prairies " — those claimed to possess the greatest 
advantages for Sheep Husbandry — running water is scarce, frequently ex- 
'remely so. The occasional streams are shallow and sluggish. Washing 
3vool on the back of the sheep, conduces, I think, to the health of the ani- 
■aal. It causes the sheep to shear much more easily — brings the wool into 

■ better marketable condition, and diminishes transportation. Streams of 
'■ onsiderable depth and rapidity (where, what is better, falling sheets of wa- 
'er over mill dams, &c., cannot be found), are almost indispensable to an 

ffectual performance of this process. Sheep, also, in many periods of 
iveather, require water for drink. When they are confined to dry feed, it 
!s indispensable, in the absence of that snow which is often, in the Eastern 
Sjtates, made a substitute for water. Neither are attainable during consid- 

■ rable periods each winter, on the prairies, without resort to a pump — a 
-orry — and, (including the time of working it, when large flocks are to be 
vatered), an expensive and troublesome substitute for running water. 

Finally, the climate of the Western and North-western States is more 

* Since writing the abore, I have found, to my utter surprise, that this disease is within three miles of 
ny own farm, in a flock driven into the country last fall. 

' t A history of this disease and its gloomy diagnosis, when neglected, will be given in a subsequent 
..etter. 



102 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



variable — exhibits more sudden and greater extremes, than the climates of V 
New- York and New-England. The weak and easily prostrated muscular •■ 
and vascular system of the sheep, will better endure great extremes of con- i 
tinuous heat or cold, than rapid and marked variations in temperature. | 
Subjected to the latter, catarrh not violent enough to kill in its inflammato- (; 
ry stage, but assuming a chronic form — and followed by a slow and wast- i, 
ing debility, frequently attacks flocks. Sometimes it assumes an epizoo- } 
tic and malignant character — as during the past winter — and sweeps away ij 
thousands of sheep. ,,' 

The isothermal line (or line of equal mean heat), does not vary particu- J 
larly between the same latitudes in New- York or Wisconsin — or between | 
Virginia and Missouri. But as we leave the ocean and other large bodies 
of water, the isotheral and isocheimal lines are found to diverge more t 
and more from the isothermal one — and the range of the thermometer (the '^ 
extremes of heat and cold indicated by it), rapidly increases. The follow- 
ing Table of temperatures, kept by officers in the Army, for a series of nine 
years, is from Doct. Forry's excellent work on the " Climate of the United \ 
States, &c."* It strikingly illustrates the fact asserted. The four points 
specified are in about the same latitude. 



Fort Wolcott. Newport, Rhode Island . 

Fort Trumbull, New-London, Conn 

Fort Armstrong, Rock Island. Ill 

Council Blutfs, near the confluence of , 
the Platte and Missouri ' 



Highest. 


Lowest. 


Annual Range. 


85 


+2 


83 


87 


--9 


78 


96 


— 10 


106 


104 


—16 


120 



Doct. FoiTy states that the mean annual range of the thermometer at the 
following places, is as follows : at Foil Sullivan (Eastport, Me.) it is 104°, 
while at Forts Snelling (confluence of the St. Peter's and Mississippi in 
Iowa) and Howard, (Green Bay, Wisconsin,) in about the same latitude, it 
is respectively 119°, and 123°. 

At Fort Preble (Portland, Me.) Fort Niagara (near the mouth of the ; 
Niagara River, N. Y.), Fort Constitution (Portsmouth, N. H.) it is 99°, 
92°, and 97° ; at Fort Crawford, (confluence of the Wisconsin and Missis- 
sippi Rivers in Wisconsin,) on the same parallel, it is 120°, 

The above instances are not isolated ones. The same law is found — 
other things being equal — to generally prevail throughout our own, and 
perhaps all other countries.t 

While the cold of the Northei'n, and particularly the North-western j 
States, so greatly exceeds that of the Southern States, few would be pre- \ 
pared for the proposition that the extremes of heat in the former, often 
reach points unknown many degrees farther South ! Yet such is the 
fact ! 

Fort Snelling, in latitude 44° 53', and occupying a central position in that jj 
vast territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Missouri, and between 
the 41st and 49th parallels of latitude — and which may therefore be pre- 
sumed, to a certain extent, to afford a type of the climate of that whole re- 
gion — feels a maximum summer heat of 93° — the same with that of Wash- 
ington City, in latitude 38° 53', and Old Point Comfort, Va., in latitude 
37° 2'. At Fort Johnston, on the Coast of North Carolina, in latitude 34°, 
the maximum heat is but 90° ; at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor, 
in latitude 32° 42', it is also 90° ; at Foi-t Marion. St. Augustine, Florida, 



* See the above named work. p. 43. I am also indeoted to Doct. Forry for all the records of thermometri. 
cal observation!?, at the U. S. military posts, which are subsequently quoted. 

t Local exceptions exist, owing to the prevailina; winds and other causes. For example, Fort Howard 
is much neurer a large body of water than fort Snelling. Altitude also exerts its induence. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. I03 



in latitude 29° 50', it is 92'° ; at Fort Brooke, Tampa Bay, Florida, in 
latitude 27° 57', it is 92° ; and at Key West, the most southern possession of 

Uhe United States, it is 89° ! 

"' It will thus be seen that the summer heat rises higher at Fort Snelling 
than at points on the sea-board more than 20° farther South ! 
I Now let us compare their winter temperature. The minimum tempera- 
ture of Fort Snelling is — 26°* That at Washington is + 9°; Old Point 

.[Comfort + 20°; Fort Johnston + 28° ; Fort Moultrie + 21° ; St. Augus- 
ine + 39° ; Tampa Bay + 35° ; Key West + 52° ! So the greatest cold 
of Fort Snelling is 35° below that of Washington — the most northern and 

iby far the coldest of these posts — and it is actually 78° below that of a post, 

I (Key West), which its summer heat exceeds hy four degrees! 

At Fort Howard, latitude 44° 40', the seasons are even more violently 

'contrasted. Its maximum heat is 98°, its minimum — 25. At Rock Island, 

[ill., latitude 41° 28' we have already seen that the maximum is 96°, the 
minimum — 10°; and at Council I31ufts, latitude 41° 45', the maximum 

'104°, the minimum — 16° ! At Petite Quoquille, near New-Orleans, the 

I maximum is but 94°, the minimum + 30° ! 

And an examination of the monthly variations in temperature, at our 

'North-western posts, will show that these are as excessive, in proportion, 

I as those of the year — and their suddenness can scarcely be credited by 
an inhabitant of southern regions — more particularly those bordering on 
the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.t 

lj It cannot be said that Fort Snelling, or Rock Island, or Council Bluffs, 
have the summers of Italy or the South of France — for the weather is 
much hotter at intei-vals, and is subject to far more fi'equent, abrupt and 

; violent changes than in the latter : nor have these posts winters as mild as 
those of Europe, many degrees farther north.| And their winter exhibits 
the same sudden and violent changes which characterize the summer 
climate. 

These facts, in my judgment, fully explain the remarkable mortality in 
the flocks which have been carried on the prairies, and which is usually 
attributed to over-driving, poisoning, &c. The climate itself, though not 
always a rapid, will prove one of the surest o^ poisons, unless great care — 
much greater than is I'equisite even on the bleak and sterile hills of New- 
England — is taken to protect them from its deleterious influences. 

Facts sufficient have been adduced, probably, to convince every South 
ern man how much he has to fear, ultimately, from prairie competition, in 
the production of wool. Having thus attempted to measure the capabili- 
ties of the various regions of our own country for the cheap production 
of this staple, it may be well to turn our eyes to the comparative advan- 
tages of other countries and nations — and to ask the question whether 
there is any danger to the domestic producer from foreign competition. 
This can be done but briefly and rapidly in the limits which I have assigned 
to myself. 

It will not be necessary for the purposes of the present inquiry, to ex- 
amine the cUmate, flora, &c., of all portions of the world. The wool- 
producing countries — those which have natural advantages to enable them 
to produce wool cheaply enough, and in sufficient quantities, to stand any 
chance in the general competition, are mainly embraced in a belt or region 

[* It will be understood that the sign — before the number of degrees, indicates that it is that number of 
degrees helow Zero, and the sign -|- used here, in the preceding Table, and in the subsequent paragraph, to 
avoid confusiion. signities ahnve, Zfrn. Tnhlishrr.] 

t In the Report of the Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, of your State, 1843, the Committee actuaJly 
aomplain of the varialileness of the climate ! Truly, 'we can only judge by comparison I' 

{ The mean winter temperature of North Cape in Norway, latitude 710, is 23° 72 — that of Fort Snelling, 
15° 95— that of Council Blaffs, 24° 47— that of Rock Island, 26° 86. 



104 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH 

about 15^ in width, on each side of and at varying distances from the 
Equator. The variation corresponds with the variation of tempej-ature; 
in other words, the wool zone is bounded by isothermal instead of lat- 
itudinal hues. Commencing on the eastern side of each continent, in the 
northern hemisphere, between about 30° and 45°, it bears northwardly, 
and strikes their eastern shores, say between 40° and 55°. In the south, 
ern hemisphere, I am not aware that the isothermal deviations, in the 
corresponding parallels, have been noted — nor are they important, so 
small, comparatively, is the latitudinal area of the surfaces included be- 
tween them. 

Independent of minor deviations every whei'e exhibiting themselves in the 
isothermal lines, more important local excejJtions exist in many places, owing 
to elevation, proximity of bodies of water, prevailing winds, &c. Thus, south 
of latitude 30° in North America, the elevations of the Cordilleras give the 
mild weather of the temperate, and even the rigors of the frozen zone; 
and the same is true of the Andes of South America — in Bolivia, Peru, 
Ecuador and New-Grenada — in the same latitudes, where, at the eastern 
foot of these declivities, the tropical sun burns up, as with fire, the verdure 
of the vast llanos of Brazil and Venezuela, and exhales death from the 
pestilent fens of Guiana, and the reptile-teeming marshes of the Amazon. 
The same exceptions exist on the Eastern Continent, wherever mountain 
chains rise to sufficient elvations to bring to bear this well known and uni- 
form law for the depi'ession of temperature, albeit in tropical or sub- 
tropical regions. The steady and mild climate of the Atlantic Ocean, and 
its continual and peculiar motion on the west of Europe, preventing the 
ice, which the north wind wafts down from the Arctic seas, from lodging 
itself, or even approaching* those shores, strongly influences the climates 
of the British Islands and Norway, rendering them m'^re temperate than 
others many degrees farther south in the interior of Europe and Asia. 
Eastern Prussia, and Polish Russia, are rendered disproportionably cold 
by the prevailing wind, which sweeps without resistance from the bosom 
of the Arctic Ocean to the Carpathian Mountains : and the north-east wind, 
laden with the frosts of Siberia, and untempered by the southern winds, 
from which it is cut off by the lofty Altay Mountains, carries a cold under 
which men, nay whole caravans,t perish in Persia, in the same latitude 
with Northern Africa, and the confines of the burning Sahara.^ The Cas- 
pian and Black Seas — Mounts Caucasus and Taurus prevent Asiatic Turkey, 
and Mount Hsemus, European Turkey — from experiencing similar cold. 
The same wind entering Europe, reduces the temperature of its eastern 
considerably below that of its western confines ; and its effects are felt more 
or less westwardly, in proportion as its course is arrested by mountains. 
The climate of Silesia and Saxony is far colder and more mutable than 
than that of Bohemia, from which they are only separated by the Erzge- 
birge and Riesengebirge. In Northern European Russia, in Finland and 
the basin of the Dwina — in the same latitudes where Norway exhibits the 

* Malte Brun's Geocrraphy — Art. Climate of Europe. t Sir Robert Kerr Porter. 

I From the deliirhtful Arabian Nights — from the not less delightfiil strains of Lalla Rookh — from a thou- 
sand other sources, rememl)ered and unremembered — song, fiction and Oriental tale — Persia always rises 
before fancy's eye a realm and clime of beauty : 

" deep myrrh-thickets blowing round 

The stately cedar, tamarisks, 
Thick roseries of scented thorn, 
Tall orient shrubs, and obelisks 

Graven with emiilems of the time, 
In honor of the golden prime. 
Of good Haroun Ahaschid." 
There are portions of Persia where the soil is rich and the climate delightftil— but, as a whole, it is a bleak, 
Btcrile, unfruitful country — large portions of it covered with rugged mountains or saline deserts — with a 
climate remarkable for the rapidity and extent of its varialious. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 105 



flora of Northern Germany — spirits freeze and quicksilver becomes malle- 
able. But it is unnecessary to continue this enumeration. 

Let us now take a rapid view of the wool-growing countries embraced 
in the specified zones. And we will first complete the description of our 
j own continent. 

1 Mexico — that portion of it north of latitude 30° — bears too close a re- 
j semblance to our Western Territories conterminous with it, to require 
I separate notice. 

But a small proportion of the great peninsula of South America is in- 
cluded between the 30th and 45th parallels of latitude, and admittino-, 
what seems probable, that the contiguity of two great oceans would so af- 
fect the climate as to carry the northern line of the wool zone a little 
nearer to the Equator, this zone would still embrace but, say, two-thirds 
1 of Buenos Ayres, nearly all of Chili, the little State of Uraguay, a mere 
point of Brazil, and the north of Patagonia. 

The growing of wool has already been commenced on the vast pampas* 
of Buenos Ayres — though as yet to a but limited extent. In 1832, the ex- 
port of wool to Great Britain was 32,052 arrobas ;t but the same year 
the import of English woolens considerably exceeded it in value. The 
United States Tariff on foreign wools costing 7 cents per pound or under, 
being then but 5 per cent, ad valorem, the importation of wool of that 
quality from the Argentine Republic| into our counjiry in the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1846, was 4,295,659 lbs., and of wool costing more than 
7 cents (paying a duty of 30 per cent, ad valore?n, and a specific duty of 
3 cents per pound) the import was 43,831 lbs.|| 

' The f arnicas resemble the North American prairies, being jilains cov- 
ered with wild grasses, and entirely destitute of timber. The land is di- 
vided by the Government into estates a league square (5,760 acres,) and 
sold at 10 cents per acre. Until recently the pampas wei-e depastured al- 
most exclusively by horses and cattle, and so plenty and cheap were 
they, that they were frequently killed for their hides alone. The herds- 
men and shepherds live in miserable huts, and temporai-y folds are formed 
of the tninks of peach-trees. Western or south-western winds called ^a7;^- 
peros often sweep the country with destructive fury, and there are in- 
stances in which flocks of sheep have been forced by them into streams 
and have perished. 

The inhabitants of the pampas are, on the north, the Gauchos — descend- 
ants of Spaniards — who, living in the saddle, and content to subsist on 
jerked beef and cold water — having few wants, and none which the lasso 
will not supply — lead a life of wild and roving liberty. Tribes of mount- 
ed Indians, wild, predatory, and constantly at war with the Gauchos, oc- 
cupy the southern pampas. 

The facilities for producing wool here closely resemble those of the 
North American prairies, though wood is wanting over much more exten- 
sive tracts. The price of land on the pampas is less, but they are more 
remote from markets, as there is little or no manufacturing done in South 
America. Besides the cost of transportation, wool must pay, before reach- 
ing market, the duties levied by some foreign nation. The duty in the 
United States, by the Tarifl" of 1846, is 30 per centum ad valorem, with- 
out regard to quality, thus discontinuing that great discrimination in favor 
of the coarse article, which allowed a large proportion of the wools of 

* This wold, like llanos in the Northern States of South America, and prairies in the North-Westem 
United States, is applied to extensive plains. Those in the North of Chili are called pampas del sacramento, 
t McCuUoch's Commercial Dictionary. An arroba is 1011 lbs. avoirdupois. 
X Buenos Ayres is so known in all the official documents of the United States. 
II Repoit of the Register of the Treasury, Dec. 1846. 



106 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH, 

Buenos Ayres, Africa, Turkey, &c., to enter our ports under a merely 
nominal duty. The present Tariff" raised the duty on these wools to six 
times the former rate, i. e., on wools costing 7 cents, from 31 mills to 2 cents 
and 1 mill per pound. This will make an important difference to the for- 
eign grower and exporter. If these wools continue, as hitherto, to be im- 
ported in the grease and dirt, from which state they lose about half weight 
in being brought as clean as well washed United States wool, every pound 
of tliem so imported will actually pay a double duty, or 4 cents and 2 mills, 
half of this being paid for dirt. If, on the other hand, they are washed 
prior to exportation, a reduction of 50 per cent, in their weight will call 
for a corresponding advance in their price. Wool now costing 7 cents at 
Buenos Ayres or Smyrna, will cost 14 cents ; and if this is exported into 
the United States, it must pay a duty of 30 per cent., or 4 cents and 2 
mills per pound. It will be seen, therefore, that the lowest priced foreign 
wools cannot enter our country without paying about this duty (4 cents) 
per pound, unless under fraudulent invoices ; and this, as has been already 
shown, is half the cost of producing wool throughout a region of the United 
States much greater in extent than all that portion of South America in- 
cluded within the Avool-growing zone. 

The English duty on wools costing less than 24 cents is 1 cent per 
pound ; over 24 cents, 2 cents per pound. The French duty is 22 per 
cent, ad valorem, wi#iout regard to cost. 

The security of life and property is far less in Buenos Ayres than in the 
United States ; the character of the agricultural population less industri- 
ous, less skillful, and less methodical. Capitalists from other coimtries 
may, on account of the cheapness of the lands, make it profitable to pur- 
chase large estancias, and raise vast flocks of sheep ; and this has already 
been done by a few Europeans. But the pampas are subject to the same 
general objections* with the North American prairies, and when the con- 
tagious diseases, adverted to in speaking of the latter, once obtain a foot- 
ing on them, it is not difficult to predict how those diseases will be en- 
countered by the wild and, so far as agricultural labor is concerned, indo- 
lent Gaucho. The difficulty of encountering them, with the best skill and 
industry, under such circumstances — of preventing their unlimited spread, 
constant return and frightful mortality, on plains without inclosures, where 
flocks have access to each other, or straggling sheep from one flock are 
liable, by every-day casualties, to be thrown among those of another flock 
— has been stated. 

It is not improbable that while land remains so low, and the sheep 
healthy, the actual cost of production in Buenos Ayres will be somewhat 
less than in the United States ; but taking all things into consideration, and 
looking to the future, I would sooner advise any one, even in an exclu- 
sively economical point of view, to purchase the cheap lands of our own 
Southern States for the objects of Sheep Husbandry, than any part of 
South America. With the present duty and the cost of transportation 
against the latter, there is no fear that it can undersell, in our markets, 
the produce of the former. The 7-cent South American wools, washed, 
will cost 14 cents, and washing will add about 1 cent a pound to the cost.t 
Add another cent for agent's commission, and also the U. S. duty, and the 
wool is brought to 20 cents a pound, independent of freight and insurance, 
which will carry it, I should think, to about two shillings. The United 
States producer can furnish wool of much better quality than the coarse 
South American article, at this pi'ice, and realize a high profit. 

' Unlfiss it be climatic ones. On this point I have no information. 

t This will be attended with much trouble on large portions of the pampas, as on our prairies. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ] 07 



- But is it said that the 7-cent South American wool sold in our markets 
in 1845 and 1846, was not all coarse — that much of it was actually of a 
superior quality ] This is true. Many of the bales were j^cirthj made up 
jof an article ranging with American Merino and Saxony wools. But there 
jis little doubt that, to say the least of it, in very many such cases, if the in- 
I voice of the wool was not fraudulent, nominally, it was rendered so, in 
j reality, by a previous fraud. The modus oj)erandi is said to have been as 
follows: A sends his agent B to Buenos Ayres with instructions to pur- 
chase the best lots of wool and pay their market price ; and he farther 
gives him secret instructions to re-sell these wools to C (a second agent) 
for 7 cents per pound, ostensibly in the ordinary course of business. The 
second agent C is subsequently sent out to buy, with no ivformation of the 
mission of his predecessor ; if he suspect the fraud, he has no direct T^nowl- 
edge of it, and having purchased wool for 7 cents which cost B 15 cents, he 
can invoice it at the former rate and support the invoice by his oath. 

I have no direct proof of an instance of this species of fraud. The 
commonness of such transactions, however, was claimed to be a matter 
of perfect notoriety, by individuals who had investigated the subject. 
Allegations of this kind have appeared again and again in the most 
public manner, and I have yet to listen to the first denial of them, public 
or private. Fraudulent invoices are no new thing in our commercial his- 
tory,* and the great discrimination made by the Tariff of 1842, in the du- 
ties on wool, offered the strongest temptations to them. The same kind 
of fraud may be still practiced, but the inducement to risk seiziire for un- 
dervaluation is less where the diminution of duty is merely ^?'0 rata with 
the diminution of cost, and where getting the latter invoiced at as low a 
rate as 7 cents, is not followed, as before, by escape from a specific duty 
and a sudden descent oi five-sixths in the ad valorem one. 

I am free to confess, however, that it has always seemed to me that a 
determination to vigorously and faithfully discharge their duty in the 
premises, with a competent practical knowledge of the quality of the arti- 
cle, in the proper Custom-House officials, would always, in an unmanu- 
factured staple, and one so readily classified and valued as wool, be a suf- 
ficient safeguard against fraudulent undervaluation, to any extent, in the 
invoice. They might perhaps be undervalued one or two cents on the 
pound, without making a case strong and obvious enough to justify ap- 
praisers in legalizing a seizure ; but it is not for gains like these that per- 
juries would be ventured upon, or double agents and other expensive ar- 
rangements for the perpetration of more roundabout frauds, be found 
profitable. 

Not having room, within the limits of this letter, to discuss the capa- 
bilities of the Old World to compete with us in wool growing, I will 
reserve that subject for my next. 



* If any one dreams they nre. let him read a speech on the Tariff made by Mr. Buchanan in the U. 9. 
Senate in 1842— another by Mr. Webster on ad valorem duties, made in the same body July i,5, 184G, &,c. 



108 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER IX. 

PROSPECTS OF THE WOOL MARKET— FUTURE DEMAND AND SUPPLY. 

The Imports and Exports of Trans-Atlantic Nations... Means of ascertaining their Comparative Produc- 
tion... Table of the Imports of England.. .Amount of Wool grown in the United Kingdom, Consumption, 
Export, Facilities, including Soils and Climate, for its Cheap Production, and Prospect of its Increase or Dim- 
inution—Same of France— Same of Spain- Same of Italy — Same of Turkey in Europe— Same of Germany, 
including Prussia and Austria, with the exception of Hungary — Same of Hungary — Same of Russia — Same 
of Asia -Minor — Same of Persia — Same of Independent Tartary— Same of Afghanistan and Beloochistan — 
Same of Thibet, Little Bucharia, and the remainder of China — Same of the Cape of Good Ho])e— Same of 
Austi-alia and Van Diemcn's Land. - .Conclusions in regard to Comparative Facilities, etc.. of above Na- 
tions and the United States... The Northern States can compete with the most favored of them — and of 
course the South can, to much greater advantage.. .The South might safely embark in Wool-Growing, re- 
lyino- on the European Market alone ... Rapid Extension of that Market Past and Future... But the Ameri- 
can Wool-Grower is not compelled to seek a Foreign Market... Our Production does not meet the Demand 
of our own Manufactories.. .Table of the Imports of Wool into the United States.. .Table showing 
whence we Import Wool.. .Letter fi-om Samuel Lawrence, Esq., showing the increasing call for Man 
ufactoiies — The Stability of existing ones — and their ability to compete with those of Foreign Countries. . 
Extent of our Consumption of Woolens above the Supply made by our Manufactories... Table of Imports 
of Woolens. ..Probal)le Increase of our Manufactories.. .Reflections on the Tariti'. ..Rapidly Increasing 
Consumption of our Population — Amount Consumed per head. . .Table of Increase of our Population... 
Future Increase. . -The Amount of Wool Necessary at various Future Periods. 

Dear Sir : Probably there are few men who now dream of any danger 
to the wool-grower of the United States, in the 7iome market, from trans- At- 
lantic competition. But there is another point of view, in which a glance 
at the facilities of the eastern nations, for the production of this staple, may 
not be uninteresting. May we not undersell them loith the raw material, in 
their own markets ! He who carefully and intelligently examines all the 
facts involved in the solution of this question, will find, in spite of the vague 
popular impressions which prevail on the subject, that so far at least as 
those nations are concerned, which noio produce the greatest amount of 
the wool which supplies the markets of the Old World, the United States 
can, if satisfied with equal profits, easily undersell them. 

As an importer of the raw and exporter of the manufactured article, 
England occupies the first place. In these particulars, she probably ex- 
ceeds, by fully one-half, all the other nations of the Old World. France 
ranks next, and largely takes precedence of the remaining nations. Hol- 
land, though shorn, by disastrous political revolutions, of much of her an- 
cient importance in this class of manufactures, still maintains a trade of 
some magnitude. Several of the German and Prussian States export par- 
ticular descriptions of woolens ; Italy sends out some light cloths ; and 
Turkey the carpets of that name. A full exhibit of the exports of all the 
wool-producing nations, would not, of course, lead us to an accurate knowl- 
edge of the amount of their production — for there is no one which does 
not manufacture the raw material to some extent. But with what knowl- 
edge we can obtain of their manufactures, the former information would 
enable us to ascertain, approximately at least, the amount of their produc- 
tion. This is all that is necessary for our present purpose, for we do not 
now, in reality, so much seek iheir actual as their comparative production. 

England, as I have before remarked, is the great importer and exporter. 
Her duties on imported wool are, as has been seen,* exceedingly low, and 
she makes no discrimination in this particular, in relation to bottoms, or 
the places of export.t The vastness and variety of her demand give a 

* See Letter VIIL 

t With the exception, of course, of her own Colonies, from which it is exported free. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 109 



greater certainty to the exporter of prompt and favorable sales, in her 
markets, than in those of any other nation. France possesses the advan- 
tage of maritime contiguity, for securing the raw product of the nations 
bordering on the Mediterranean ; and therefore, in some instances, as in 
the case of Turkey, she receives more of that product, in proportion to her 
manufacturing consumption, than England. But in one respect the latter 
has the advantage in securing the trade of the Levant. Between the na- 
tural products, and, of consequence, the exports of France and those of 
the other nations bordering on the Mediterranean, there exists a great simi- 
larity. She cannot send her v^^ines to Hungary, nor these nor her silks to 
Italy, in exchange for wool. Her fruits, and indeed all of her natural pro- 
ducts are the same with those of the whole south of Europe. England, 
the producer, and the great mart of the products of Northern Europe, can 
offer these in the Mediterranean on better terms than France ; and in the 
manufacture of cotton goods, the main article of dress, and consequently 
one of the great ones of import throughout the whole Levant, the former 
possesses a decided superiority. All these natural and artificial circumstances 
have their weight, sometimes in favor of one, and sometimes the other of 
these nations, in determining the course of trade — and habit, ancient com- 
mercial associations, and even national predilections also throw their weight 
into the scale. In looking at the subject as a whole, however, all these 
facts, unless in a very few instances, so far offset each other, that in obtain- 
ing a view of the wool trade of England — her imports — we obtain a suffi- 
ciently accurate picture or index of the proportionahle exports of all the 
nations of the Old World. 

Before proceeding to ascertain the actual facilities of the several coun- 
tries named in the Table, for the purposes of wool-growing, it may be well 
to briefly glance at that of England herself 

Mr. Luccock* estimated the produce of wool in England and "Wales, in 
1800, to be 393,236 packs,t or 94,376,640 lbs. ; and in 1828, Mr. Hubbard | 
placed it at 463,169 packs, or 111,160,560 lbs. According to a Table 
formed by order of a Committee of the House of Lords, the same year, 
the quantity produced on an average of years, in England, is 111,160,560 
lbs. According to Mr. Luccock's estimate, (in 1800.) the number of sheep 
in England and Wales was 26,148,463. It is not thought to have varied 
much since. The Encyclopaedia Americana, || (published 1835,) on the 
authority of the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, sets down the then present 
number of sheep in the United Kingdom as follows : in Scotland 3,500,000 ; 
in Ireland probably under 2,000,000 ; in England and Wales the same 
number as in the time of Mr. Luccock ; — so that the aggregate number 
would be about 32,000,000. It will thus be seen that England and Wales, 
with an area much less than that of Virginia, § have almost 7,000,000 
more sheep than the whole number in the United States in 1839 ! 

Large as is the amount of wool produced in the United Kingdom, it 
does not meet, in the number of pounds, the amount required for woolens 
consumed in the United Kingdom alone.^ It is true that England has 
exported some combing wool, of her own gi^owth, to meet the wants of a 
certain class of manufactories (of worsted) in France, which could not ob- 
tain stock of equal quality in any other quarter ; and she has also exported 
considerable quantities of her own coarse short wools. Of the latter, I 
am ashamed to say, the United States have been considerable purchasers. 
The whole export of England, in 1824, amounted to but little over 18,000 

* See Luccock on Wool, p. 341 and Table. t A pack of wool is 040 lbs. 

t Quoted by Mr. Bischoff— See vol. ii., Appendix. || Encyclopaedia Americana— ort. Sheep Raising. 

§ The area of Virginia is 70,000 square miles, that of England and Wales 60,000. 

TT See Bischoflf, vol. ii., p. 171. 



110 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



lbs. From that time it has gradually increased, and in 1838 it reached 
5,851,340 lbs. ; in 1839, 4,603,799 lbs. ; in 1840, 4,810,387 lbs.* Under the 
last year of the late Tariff', we received from England, of wools not costing 
to exceed 7 cents per pound, 1,188,800 lbs., and of those exceeding 7 
cents, 28,406 lbs.; and from Scotland, of the cheaper class, 21,132 lbs. t 
This, however, only shows a sui'plus in kind, not in quantity. The Eng- 
lish short wools have, as has been abundantly shown by the testimony 
of her most eminent manufacturers,! a Jiarshness and want of felting prop- 
erties which i-ender them unfit, unmixed with a better stamp of foreign 
wools, for any but the very lowest description of cloths and stuffs, such as 
blankets, baizes, army cloths, flushings or bearskins, &c. Nor will they 
make ■prime articles, even of these low descriptions. England, therefore, 
after consuming such portions of these wools as she can, in the manufac- 
ture of the above-named and similar articles, and by mixing them, in the 
nature of an alloij, with better foreign wools in a low class of fabrics, such 
as flannels, livery and sergeant's cloth, etc., exports the balance to such 
nations as are foolish enough to purchase it.H 

The following Table, compiled from official sources, from Bischoff''s 
*' Comprehensive History of the Woolen and Worsted Manufactures, 
&c.,"§ gives the imports of England every fifth year from 1810 to 1840, 

TABLE No. 8. 



Countries fm.which Imp'ted 

Russia 

Norway 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Prussia 

Germany 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Portugal 

Spain 

Gibraltar 

Italy 

Malta 

Ionian Isles 

Morea, &c 

Turkey 

Syria 

Cape of Good Hope 

Africa, other parts 

St. Helena 

East Indies 

New South Wales 

Van Diemen's Land 

Poit Philip 

Swan River 

South Australia 

British America 

British West Indies 

United States of America. 

Guatemala 

Colombia 

Brazil 

Rio de la Plata 

Chili 

Peru 

Mexico 

Guernsey and Man 

Total Pounds weight. 



1810. 



1815 



1820. 



1825. 



1835. 



1840. 



32,149 
11.930 
351,741 
15,424 
12:i,0.57 
778,835 

[ 2,873 

3,018 961 

5,952,407 

349,0.53 

21,554 

40,040 



29,717 



297. 6 a 
40.984 

424,82'.. 
32.889 

105,073 
3,137,438 

432,832 

75fi,427 

1,146,607 

6,929,579 

12,891 

97,679 

55,804 



12,513 
23,363 



701 
167 



1,217 

2,894 



43,014 
73,159 



41,407 



73,171 



53 
8,533 



4.311 
41,527 



6,264 



75,614 

13,527 

107,101 
5,113,442 

186,051 

230,9'i9 
95,187 
3,536,229 
3,p5l 
2,815 
5,050 

189,584 
13,869 

8,056 
99,415 



139 

760 
578 



4,277 
68,759 
14,792 



19,015 



1,992,101 

302 

554,213 

3,497 

131,100 

28,799,601 

1,059.243 

436.678 

953,79.3 

8,206,427 

19.2.50 

227,453 

72,131 

25,983 

513,414 

27,619 



323,995 

70 
80,468 



37 

331,265 

2 

14,313 

22,266 



202,871 

179,717 

380 

713.246 

26,073,882 

939,123 

45,093 

461,942 

1,643,515 

9,461 



33,407 



■ 973,330 
993,979 



1,725 
7,313 



1,148 
19,441 



5,741 

7,745 



4,024,740 

366,444 

1,431 

256,147 

23,79-',186 

C 301,8,55 

\ 231.222 

104,535 

683,231 

1,602,752 

476.7.3 

1,051,005 

39,913 

816,6; 
1,281,839 

191,624 
5,102 

295.848 
^4,210,301 



14 

2.029 

237,300 



18,760 
962,900 



1,213,740 
246 



4,518,563 

605,521 

5,961 

24.646 

21,812,099 

46,247 

134,095 

48.8.30 

374.915 

1,266,905 

242,734 

1,668,541 

2,209 

121,110 

42,893 

655,964 

34,049 

751,741 

337,908 

4,683 

2.441,370 

f 6,215,329 

I 2,626,178 

785,398 

42,748 

51,590 

15,793 

3,286 

115,095 

3,009 

842 

9,182 

616,721 

586,796 



11,830 



10,914,137| 13,640.375 



9.789,020 43,79.5,281 32.313,059 42,174,.532 46,224.781 



* Bischoff, Table 6th, Appendix. t Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846. 

X See Bischoti; vol. ii.. pp. 107, 153, 154, 163, 173, 175, 176, &c. The testimony here alluded to, or an 
abstract of it will be given in a subsequent Letter. 

II If these sound like strong expressions, I have to say that I shall be prepared to prove them, and shall 
60 do, in a subsequent Letter, from the te.stimony of the first manufacturers of England before a Committee 
of the House of Lords. Nor were the facts disputed by an interest represented before the same Committee, 
who had every inducement to do so, if they could be sustained in it 

§ See Appendix of the above work, vol. ii. Misled by the title on the cover, I have nowhere befcre 
given the proper designation to Mr. Bischolfs work. Wherever the authority of this gentleman is given 
you will understand that it is derived Irom the work just named. Published London, 1842. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. HI 



' 'land therefore indicates, as well as the case admits of — home manufactures 
' 'Ixemaining the same — the rise or decline of wool-growing, in the several 
iijnations, for the period indicated. 

{'[ It will be seen from the above, that Spain, (and we may include the 
1 1 whole Peninsula,) once so famous for her wools, has sunk to a fifth or 
I ieixth rate wool-producing country, and that her exports are still constantly 
lideclining ; that Germany and Prussia have reached their climax, and are 
ion the wane ; that Russia, Italy, Australia and the East Indies are the 
jraost rapid increasers. 

I The high prices of land and provisions — nearly double those on the Con- 

jtinent* (far more than double those on many poitionsof it) — the onerous gen- 

ieral taxes and parochial assessments, will not allow wool to be grown in 

England for its own sake. The sheep must be reared, as a matter of pure 

! necessity, to sustain her present system of convertible husbandry. A sheep 

fitted for that object, and to make the most meat in the shortest time, is 

' the main desideratum. Wool is but a secondary consideration. None 

but the coarse, early matuiing breeds will, therefore, ever be grown there. 

I Unless some gi-eat revolution should take place in her Agi'iculture, these 

I are not likely to ever materially increase or diminish from their present 

,' number. If any effect is produced on this husbandry by the abolition of 

I the Corn-Laws, I think it will be to diminish rather than increase the num 

! bar of sheep. 

France, especially in some of her Southern Provinces, is admirably 
adapted to Sheep Husbandry. In 1825, the number of sheep in the King- 
dom was estimated to exceed 30,000,000, but it is supposed to have mate- 
rially diminished since that period, by reason of the division of landed 
property, and other causes.''' With a population variously estimated from 
163^ to 168 to the square mile,f a soil a fair portion of which is well 
adapted to the growth of bread-stuffs, and the remainder to the vine, fruits, 
the mulbeiTy (for silk), etc., France finds it better economy to cultivate 
these, and draw a considerable portion of her supplies of wool from other 
countries — her fine wools from Germany and Spain, her coarse ones from 
the regions bordering on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, the 
Gulf of Venice, and the Black Sea. France exported 84,799 lbs. of wool, 
costing less than 7 cents a pound, to the United States in 1846. || This 
small amount might have been of her own growth, or derived from her 
transit trade. By the statistical Tables appended to his description of 
France, by Malte Brun, it appears that of the 51,777,000 hectares§ which 
he estimates to comprise the surface, 22,818,000 are in arable land, while 
the entire extent of meadows and pastures (which are divided about 
evenly) but little exceeds 7,000,000 hectares.^ 

Spain, it appears from the Table, now exports less wool to England 
than Italy or Russia ! and is still (as late as 1840) on the decrease. This 
is not owing to the increase of her manufactures,** or by a diversion of her 
exports into other channels. The export to France would, undoubtedly, 
show a similar falling off. That to the United States is but nominal. In 
1836 it was but 20,730 lbs., ft and as this was wool costing less than 7 cents 
per pound, and came from the Mediteiranean side of Spain, it was prob- 
ably in her ports merely in transitu. The Gibraltar trade, given in the 
Table, I take to be exclusively or mainly a transit one. From the Balan- 

* See Circular of John Maitland and others, Committee of the Woolen Ti-ade in London — BischoflC, voL 
ii., p. 33. t BischofF, Youatt. 

X Mitchell assumes the former, and Morse the latter to be the population. 

II Report of Secretary of the lYeasury, 1846. § A hectare is 2 acres 1 rood and about 35-4 rods. 

TT Malte Brun, Am. ed. vol. iii., p. 1029. 

** Spain is not estimated to manufacture more than one-twentieth of the woolens consumed by her. Eu- 
cyclopsedia Amer., art. Spain. tt Report Secretary Treasury, 1846. 



112 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

za Mercantil* published by the Government, it appears that the exports 
of Spain of all kinds, in 1826, amounted to only =£1,587,507. The exports : 
of raw and manufactured silk and gut reached 66243,390 ; lead, c£215,360 ; i 
wines, 66189,340 ; wool, 66161,650 ; fi-uits, c5ei52,075 ; brandy, 66107,715 ; j 
barilla, 6679,200, etc. This exhibits not only the smallness of the entire ji 
expoit of wool, but the diminished comparative importance of this once 4 
great national staple, j 

The number of sheep in Spain is still placed by many writers as high as i 
10,000,000 for the migratory flocks, and 8,000,000 for the stationary ones, j 
Even Mr. Youatt has fallen into this, as it strikes me, unquestionable error. t tJ 
If Spain possesses 18,000,000 of sheep, what does she do with the wool, | 
which should amount to at least 54,000,000 lbs. 1 Admitting — which prob- 5 
ably exceeds the fact — that her export to France and other nations equals | 
that to England, and that she maimfactures a quantity equal to twice her ^ 
whole export, the aggregate amount would be less than 8,000,000 lbs. i 
The author of the article on Sheep Raising in the Encyclopeedia Ameri- 
cana, places the number of the whole fine-wool sheep in Spain at 4,000,000. j 
This I think high enough, and probably not far from the truth. This is a ' 
million less sheep than those of the State of New-York in 1839 ! 

The actual facilities for growing wool in Spain have already been al- ' 
luded to in my fifth Letter. I should not consider it necessary to bestow ' 
farther examination on them, were it not for the fact that owing to various 
associations connected with the early history of the Merino sheep, and the , 
lead once taken by Spain in the production of fine wool, her facilities have 
been, popularly, prodigiously overrated, and even the difticulties under ; 
which she has labored for this husbandry, magnified into advantages. Her' 
northern mountains are high, broken, cold, and exposed to peculiarly , 
piercing north winds, | and the winter on them lasts, as I infer from Mr, 
Livingston, about six months. He says : || ;' 

" When the severe weather commences on the mountains, tlie shepherds prepare to de- i' 
part, which is generally about the end of September and throughout the month of October, f 
to seek more temperate climates and fresher pastures. In Apiil or May, according as the I 
season is late or early, they return to the mountains." * 

It might be practicable to prepare hay for winter use, in favorable posi- \ 
tions, and particularly on the 2^ara77ieras, on these mountains, and thus the 
migratory sheep might become stationary on them. But the Spaniard is \ 
too much wedded to ancient customs, too little in love with change of any 
kind, and, most of all, a change bringing an addition of labor, to thus in- 
novate on his own habits or those of his flocks. | 

The high basins of the Douro and Tagus (embracing the two Castiles .1 
and Leon) are too valuable for the cultivation of grain, vineyards, fruits, ' 
etc., to be profitably devoted to the pasturage of sheep. The wheat of | 
Spain is among the best in Europe, § and it is stated in Mr. Jacob's Tracts - 
on the Corn Trade, that she frequently does not raise enough for her own I 
consumption.^ For the vine, olive, fig, mulberry, barilla, and various . 
other products of equal profit both for home consumption and for export, ' 
she is not excelled probably by any country in Europe. A friend of mine 
who traveled in Spain in 1845, describes the valleys above alluded to, as ; 
almost exclusively devoted to tillage crops. In the Southern Provinces, 



* Quoted by McCulloch — Com. Die. art Cadiz. 

t See Yoaatt on the sheep. Lond. ed., p. 147 et supra. Mr. Livinffston in his day estimated the miirratory 
sheep at o.OUO.OOO, the stationary at 8.000,000. See Kssay on Sheep, pp. 36, 39. Mr. L. was also uudoub^ 
edly in error. | Malte Hiun. || Livingston on Sheep, p. 36. 

§^Note by Percival to Am. ed. of Malte brun ; art. Spain, 

Tl Quoted by McCulloch — Com. Die. ; art. Odessa. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 113 



iKvhere rain does not sometimes fall foi* months in the summer,* the grass 
ihecomes entirely dried up, so that flocks, to be made stationary there, 
;{-would require hay or other prepared food for several of the summer months 
;' The Translmviantes or migratory flocks must still continue, then, to 
jtravel from the northern mountains to the warm basins of the Guadiana 
(jand the Guadalquiver for their winter quarters, and return to the moun- 
tains in the summer, or this branch of the husbandry would undoubtedly 
ibecome extinct. The effect on the health and condition of the sheep, and 
jthe important item which it would form on the debit side of the account 
: in Sheep Husbandry, to thus drive flocks a six weeks' journey twice a year, 
,1 (consuming nearly a quarter of the year on the road,) can be estimated by 
iiany one acquainted with such matters.f The losses and expenses thus in- 
i curred would absorb all the profits of the husbandry, were it not for the 
j[ extraordinary privileges confen-ed on the flockmasters (mainly consisting 
j of the King, nobles and clergy) by the absurd and tyrannical regulations 
,;of the Conscjo de la Mesta.\ The abolition of the " Council of the Royal 
;' Troop," there cannot be a reasonable doubt, would be immediately fol- 
j lowed by the downfall of the migratory Sheep Husbandry in Spain. That 
the day has gone by when this unfortunate and distracted country can 
B ever again enjoy the blessings of permanent peace and settled institutions, 
I under which this or any other branch of husbandry can increase or steadily 
flourish, until she reaches a point of political civilization entirely incom 
patible with the continuance of a relic of tyranny and barbarism so mon 
strous as the Mesta, I consider equally certain. I see, therefore, no possible, 
or at least probable contingency under which the migratory Sheep Hus- 
bandry of Spain is likely to be extended, or even to permanently main- 
ly tain its present footing. Nor is there any probability of her again rising 
into importance as a wool-producing country, from her stationary flocks. 
i Italy, though too accessible to the dry, hot wind of Africa, (the Solano, J 
\ to exhibit the uniformity of deep-green verdure seen north of the Alps, is 
nevertheless — much of it — a country of fine pasturage. The ^reat plain 
between the Alps and Appenines, the basin of the Po — including Lom- 
bardy, Sardinia, Parma, Modena, etc. — is one of the most productive in 
Europe, and its extraordinary facilities for irrigation allow five or six 
crops of hay to be mown in a single season. In Tuscany, the orange and 
lemon begin to make their appearance — the soil is alluvial and rich, and 
the mountainous districts are finely adapted to pasturage. The States of 
the Church are also highly fertile, and abound in good herbage ; and on 
the deadly Camjyagna di Roma, and even the Pontine Marshes, flocks and 
herds find an abundant subsistence in winter, and are driven to the Appe- 
nines in summer. The same remarks apply to the northern portions of 
the Kingdom of Naples. The southern extremity of Italy is exposed to 
a burning climate, and exhibits the vegetation of Africa. 

The whole superficial area of Italy does not exceed 122,000 square 
miles, and her population is 172 to the square mile. Scarcely raising 
bread-stuffs enough for her own consumption, taking one year with an- 
other, || there is not the most remote prospect of her ever becoming an im- 
portant wool-exporting country. 

* See Hon. Wm. Jarvie's Letter to me on the subject of Merino Sheep, when I acted as Corr. Sec'y of 
the N. Y. State Agricultural Society — Transactions, 1841, p. 322. 

t Since giving this as the distance from " the middle of Estremadura to the Cantabrian Mountains" (Let- 
ter v.), I see it stated in the Encj'clopaedia Americana that "the whole journey from the mountains to the 
interior of Estremadura is reckoned at about 690 miles." Measurement on the map will show that it does 
not exceed 4 degrees or 277 miles, but the difference may be made by the circuitousness of the route, or 
the writer may refer to more eastern portions of the great Appenine Chain. I find it stated by several wri- 
ters that each journey consumes six weeks. 

% For a description of this odious tribunal see Livingston on Sheep, p. 35. 

II See McCuUoch's Com. Die. ; art. Odessa. 



114 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

Turkey both in Europe and Asia, it would appear from Table 8, is 
but a trifling exporter of wool. It should be remarked, however, that the I 
wools of the Western Provinces, and of Greece, are generally exported 
from Trieste to France.* Under the late American Tariff, (" Tariff of 1842,") . 
the export to the United States was becoming an important one — much I 
greater than that to England. In 1846, it amounted, of wools costing less , 
than 7 cents a pound, to 5,744,328 Ibs.t European Turkey has a colder 
and less uniform climate than Italy, but still it is a fine one, | and being a ij 
broken, mountainous country, well adapted to pasturage, and but sparsely j 
populated, {55 to the square mile,) it is wonderful that so little attention 'i 
has been paid to the culture of wool. But the proud and indolent Turk | 
spurns all rural labor, or all interest in it, leaving it to his vassals — and | 
these, destitute of any security to person or property, taxed, oppressed, I 
liable to be compelled to make forced sales to bey or ayan — or, what is j 
worse, their property seized outright — have little inducement to accumu- ' 
late a species of property so easily pounced upon.|| 

Germany (including Prussia and Austria) is now the gi'eat producer of 
fine wools, supplying not only her own manufactories — which are es- 
timated to consume half the whole product — but exporting the large sur- 
plus indicated in the Table. Nor is this all ; for to France, the Nether- | 
lands, Switzerland, &c., she is supposed to export half as much as toEng- * 
land.§ The whole region thus included — leaving out the Austrian States i 
in Italy, which have already been considered — comprises a territory of ] 
468,000 square miles, and a population of 58,800,000, or 130|^ to the square * 
mile. The country on the north is level, vast plains extending from the 
declivities of the mountains which occupy the center of Germany, to the { 
North Sea and the Baltic. The center is mountainous, and its plains are j 
very elevated. The extreme South is covered with mountains. From the , 
Little Carpathian or Jablunka Mountains, and from the eastern termina- , 
tion of the Styrian and Julian Alps, stretch away the vast Hungarian ' 
and Transylvanian plains to the confines of Turkey. i 

The great northern plain of Germany is low, sandy, flat, often consist- ! 
ing of naked silicious sands or those covered with lichens, interspersed ' 
with frequent marshes, and terminating in many places on the Baltic in \ 
vast morasses, or land redeemed from the sea by dikes. As a whole, the i 
land, particularly in the maritim.e Provinces, is of an inferior quality, but j 
some portions of it, as for example in Silesia and Saxony, is of a quality 
ranging from medium to good. The soil of Central and Southern Ger- ! 
many (including Austria) must, of course, exhibit many varieties. In gen- | 
eral, however, it may be set down as productive in the valleys, and or- ' 
dinary or poor on the high lands. The lower plains of Wirtemberg, 
Baden, the South of Bavaria, etc., are exceedingly fertile. The plains of ' 
Hungary on the south-east not uncommonly exhibit soils of remarkable j 
richness,' but they alternate with infei'ior ones, and with vast and un- j 
healthy morasses. Taken together, the region which I have included un- 
der the designation of Germany, though not a sterile country, is not 
favored with soils naturally as productive as those of Italy or Spain ; nor | 
would it at all compare with that portion of the United States west of the j 
Apalachians. 

The climate of Germany is thus summed up by Malta Brun : ^ 

* Southey, quoted by Bischoff. vol. ii. p. 356. t Report of the .Secretary of the Treasury, 184(5. 

Z For n picture of this as well as the other natural features of Turkey, both in p^.urope and Asia, Greece, ■ 
and the Ionian Isles — as delicately accurate, as soft and rich as one of the scenes of Claude — see Childe • 
Harold, Canto II., the opening of the Giaour, the Bride of Abydos, etc. Though this may be deemed a sin- 
gular, it is the very best reference, which ray reading enables me to make. 

II See Urquhait on Turkey and its Resources, p. 139. § Encyclopajdia Americana ; art. ffool, 

i[ Am. ed., vol. ii., p. 594. i 

i 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 115 

" The climate of Gemiany is greatly modified by the elevation and declivities of the coun- 
try; but independently of that cause, it does not admit, from its extent in latitude, of any 
vague or general definition. It may be divided, however, into three great zones, and these, 
too, are susceptible of other subdivisions. The first is that of the northern plains, of vi-hich 
the temperature is not so cold as it is humid and vanable ; they are exposed to every wind, 
while fogs and tempests are conveyed to this region irom two seas. The north-west plain is 
subject, from its vicinity to the North Sea, to frequent rains and desolating hunicanes. The 
influence of the Baltic on the north-east plain is less powerful ; the climate, though colder, 
is not so humid and variable. 

The second general zone comprehends all the central part of Germany The moun- 
tains in that extensive region fonn a barrier against the eftects of the maritime climate. The 
sky is not obscured by mists, and the regular order of the seasons is not inteiTupted by 
winds and tempests ; but the elevation of the soil renders the climate colder than in other 

countries in the same latitude nearer the level of the sea The third general zone is 

that of the Alps. The lofty bights and rapid declivities connect very different climates; 
thus the culture of the vine ceases in Bavaria and Upper Austria, and appears anew with 
fresh vigor in the neighborhood of Vienna. The eternal glaciers of Tyrol and Salsburg are 
contiguous to the valleys of Styria and Carniola, covered with fields of maize or vineyards, 
and ahuost border on the olives of Trieste and the lemon-trees of Kiva." 

Contiguous mountains render the north of Hungary extremely cold. 
Farther south, the climate rapidly becomes warmer, and on the lower 
plains in the extreme south the heat is intense and the climate insalubrious. 

The hauer or farmer in those States of Germany where the feudal ten- 
ures have been abolished, and the land is held in fee simple, owns four or 
five English acres of land. These men, says Mr. Jacob, 

" although placed above the pressure of want, or possessing the bare necessaries of life, 
have very little beyond them. Such as are industrious and fragal, by cultivating iheijr small 
portion of ground, may raise a sufficient quantity of potatoes for their ovra consumption, cora 
for their bread, and provisions for two draught oxen. They all raise a small quantity of 
flax, aud some few contrive to Iceep^ve or six sheep. It is often no easy matter for those to 
find occupation, who are desirous ot other employment in addition to the cultivation of their 
own land, for no agricultural labor can be carried on during the long and severe winters. . . . 
It is rare indeed that they can aflbrd to have meat of any kind, and those only wlio are 
more prosperous than their neighbors can keep a cow to provide themselves with milk." 

The wool raised by these owners of five or six sheep, is annually 
bought up by Jews and other traveling agents, who go from house to 
house to collect it. 

The following extracts from "William Howitt's sprightly and interesting- 
" Rural and Domestic Life in Germany " will show under what circum- 
stances a great portion of its wool is grown : 

" Here you look in vain for anything like the green fields and hedge-rows of England. . . . 
It is all one fenceless and plowed field. Long rows of trees on each side of the i-oad are all 

that divide them from the fields The keeping up of the cattle presents you a new 

feature of rural life. Ai the quantity of land left for g7-ass is very small, the grass is propor- 
tionably economized. The little patches of grass between woods and in the open parts of 
the woods, the little stiips along the river-banks and even in gardens and shrubberies, are 
carefully preserved for this purpose. You see women in these places cutting grass with a 
small hook or smooth-edged sickle, and carrying it away on their heads in baskets lor their 
cows. You see the grass on the lawns of good houses, on grass-plats, and in shriibberies, 
very long and wild ; and when you ask why it is not kept closer mown, the reply is that it 
is given to the milk-woman, often for a consideiation, who cuts it as she wants it. You see 
other women picking the long gi-ass out of the forests, or under the bushes on the hill-sides 

where the slopes have been mown, for the same purjiose The children may be seen 

standing in the stream in the villages carefully washing weeds before they are given to the 

cattle Nettles, chervil, cow-parsnip, which in England are left to seed and rot, are 

all here cut for the imprisoned cow. You go down to the river-side to fish, and a peasant is 
eooji with you, chattering and gesticulating, pointing to your feet and to the grass. It is to let 
you know that yovi are not to angle there, because it treads dovini the grass ; and accordingly, 
in Gennany, with rivers full of fish, you seldom see an angler; if you, he is pretty sure to be an 

Englishman Not a sheep, a horse, or a cow is to be seen. . . . The mountain tops are 

covered with wood. The slopes are covered with vineyards. You ask where the cattle are ? 
You are answered, in the stalls. Where are the sheep ? Under the caie of shepherds, 
somewhere — Heaven knows where ! you never come across them. It is only on the great 



116 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. j 

plains of the North that you afterward find large flocks and herds, under the care of keepers, i 
kept close together ; for as they have no fences, they are under the momentary peril of mak- ! 
iiig ravages on their neighbor's crops." '1 

Between Leipsic and Berlin, on the plains of Saxony, Mr. Howitt first j 
saw flocks of sheep in the field, and he says : i 

" One thing which surprises an Englishman is to see what wretched creatures are the ' 

sheep which produce the famous Saxony wool In fact, it is a prevailing idea that ■ 

the leaner the sheep the finer the wool. It is the wool to which all the attention of the grow- j 
er is des-oted, and therefore, generally speaking, a more miserable assemblage of animals ' 

than a flock of German sheep is not to be seen On the plains they wander under the '^ 

care of a shepherd, and for the most part on fallows and stuVibles, to pick up odds and ends, i 
rather than to enjoy a regidar pasture. You may see them penned on a blazing fallow, where „■ 
not a trace of vegetable matter is to be seen, for the greater part of a summer day, which in 

this climate is pretty much like being roasted alive For what purpose they are here, 

exce]it to starve and melt them into leanness, I never could discover The sheep, be- I 

siiles being lean, are generally dreadfully lame with that pestilent complaint the foot-rot. and • 
their keepers, apparently, trouble themselves very litde about it." - 

Mr. Howitt states that it is necessary to economize the land so closely, to ] 

sustain the population, in some parts of Germany, that the peasants actual* \ 

ly convey earth up steep hill-sides in baskets, and cover the rocks with it, "^ 

to thus add to the tillable soil ! " 

In reviewing the preceding facts, you are struck with no one which ' 

would indicate particular natural advantagesfor sheep rearing in the States f 

of Germany, Prussia, and — with an exception presently to be named — - 

Austria. The climate of the North is humid, fickle and tempestuous ; that ' 

of the middle cold with long winters. Neither possess any advantages '' 

over our own Northern States — and in some respects are decidedly inferior ' 

to them. This was the opinion of that eminent sheep-breeder and excel- ^ 

lent man, Henry D. Grove, of this State, who was a native of Piussian f 

Saxony, and who certainly would never be suspected by any one who ^ 

knew him personally, of any want of partiality for anything pertaining to ' 

his Fatherland ! In his letter to Benton and Barry on wool-growing, &c.. ,' 
he says : 

" Ten years' experience has fully satisfied me on this point. In some respects, we possess 
natural advantages over Germany." 

In what particulars he awarded the preference to the United States, his 
letters and oral declarations to me, leave no uncertainty. It was both in 
soil and climate, and in instituting the comparison, he had his eye not on the 
most favored sections of our country, but on the hills of Rensselaer County 
in this State, where he resided. 

If in natural advantages we surpass Germany, how much more we do 
in artificial ones, may be estimated from the preceding extracts from 
Messrs. Jacob and Howitt. To these general remarks portions of Hunga- 
ry form an exception. In these, the climate is fine, the soil rich, and, the 
feudal tenures remaining unabolished, the land is yet held in those large 
estates so favorable to Sheep Husbandry. Pnnce Esterhazy, the former 
Austrian Ambassador to England, says Mr. Paget,* owns an estate of some- 
thing more than 7,000 square miles, including .130 villages, 40 towns, and 34 
castles. His sheep are said to amount to 3,000,000.f Other nobles own flocks 
of from ten to thirty thousand. The demi-savage Magyar serf, whose 
labor costs nothing, whose principal garment is a sheep-skin, and whose 
miserable and scanty food is more than half stolen,^ makes a most econom- 
ical shepherd ! Hungary lacks facilities for internal communication, and 
her convenience to the Mediterranean markets — excepting Turkey — so as 

* Paget's Hunijwry and Transylvania, vol. i. pp. 46. f Youatt, 

X See Paget's JSuugary, &c., p. Vi to ly. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 117 



to first throw her agricultural products into ports where the demand is good, 
is decidedly inferior to that of Italy, France and Spain. The Danube 
j is the only natural outlet to her commerce — which, thanks to a liberality 
' of policy on the part of Turkey,* contrasting most favorably with that 
ij of several enlightened nations t under similar circumstances, she enjoys 
li without limitation. To reach Trieste, a long land carriage is indispensa- 
■ Lie. Her exports too, are embarrassed by the imposts and narrow restric- 
tions of the Imperial Government. She cannot, therefore, export cheap 
,; heavy articles, such as provisions, to so great advantage as the Levantine 
nations : but every circumstance points to her as a country which should 
'! be one of the first on the Eastern Continent, for the production of wine, silk, 
wool, &c. 

Separated from Hungary and Transylvania only by the Carpathian Moun- 
tains and Turkish Moldavia, lie the fertile provinces of South-eastern Rus- 
' sia, the basins of the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Don. From the C ar- 
il pathians to the Caspian, across the entire extent of the plains of ancient 
; Scythia, not an elevation which could be properly dignified with the ap- 
pellation of a mountain, breaks the immense expanse ! The lower valley 
of the Dniester or Borysthenes, formerly known as the Ukraine, has been 
I celebrated for centuries for its pasturage — for its horses % and cattle : and re- 
I cently flocks of Merino sheep have been introduced there and successfully 
crossed with the native vaiiety. In 1839, Mr. Slade states that many of 
the colonists on the Steppe and in Bessarabia had 20,000 sheep. Merinos 
were introduced into Crimea or Tauxida, by M. Rouvier, a French ad- 
venturer, in about 1802. || In this favored peninsula, which the leai-ned 
Pallas describes as little less than an earthly Paradise,, they have multiplied 
" exceedingly, and extended to Cherson, Ekatherinoslav, Bessarabia and 
other provincial Governinents.§ The export of wool from Odessa in 1829 
was 3,402 lbs.; in 1830, 21,361 lbs. ; in 1831, 35,058 lbs.; in 1832, 41,558 
lbs.; in 1833, 66,457 lbs.; in 1834, 66,901 Ibs.^ 

In one respect Southern Russia has the advantage over Hungary. It is 
more spai-sely }X>pulated, and land is perhaps in still lower estimation. As 
in the latter, the land, much of it, is fertile and well adapted to pasturage, 
and the price of labor is next to nothing. But for causes adverted to in the 
opening part of my eighth Letter, there is a wide disparity in the climates of 
the two countries, if we leave Crimea out of view. That of Russia, aflect- 
ed by the north and north-east winds — which the Carpathians exclude from 
Hungary — has a winter which for length and intensity is entirely unequaled 
in the latter, excepting in its northern mountainous regions. Sheep must be 
housed, and fed for some months on dry food, in Southern Russia. Taking 
into view the broad, level stejJjic^** and their luxuriant natural verdure — 
taking into view the climate, warm in summer, cold and exposed to winds 
of great severity in winter, it strikes me that there must be no inconsider- 
able resemblance between this portion of Russia and our own north- 
western prairies in corresponding latitudes (45° to 46°). But when the 
cost of land and labor is taken into consideration, wool can be produced 
cheaper, in my judgment, in South-western Russia than in Spain, France, 
Germany, Italy or any other poition of Earope, excepting Hungary. Were 

« Tliis power is remarkable for its liberality in aH iss regulations which affect the trade and commerce of 
other nations. 

t e. g; the policy of England in relation to the navigatioB of the St. Lawrence. 

% This wild region and fts horses have been rendered classic by Mazeppa. Who, thatever read, has for- 
got the description of the horse on which theHetman performed his fiery and perUoMS ride ! 

II For an interesting account of the adventures of this fortunate French Jason, see SlaJe's " Travels in 
Germany and Russia," publi-hed London, 1840. 

§ See Blade's Travels; also. McCull'och's Com. Die..— art. Odessa. 

TI McCuUoch's Com. Die. — art. Odessa. 

** This Uussian wtaxl hijs a similar significatitaQ tojwaine, pampas, llanos, &c. 



118 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH- 

European Turkey differently populated, and under different institutions, It 
misi^ht constitute another exception. 

Central and Nortliern Russia, like the States north of Germany, 
are north of the wool zone. Their winters are too long and severe to 
allow them to compete with regions lying farther south, in wool-growing. 

Asia Minor, or Turkey in Asia, and Persia have been alluded to — the 
former, much of it, a fine country with a most delightful climate, but its 
natural advantages all neutralized by its political systems and the charac- 
ter of its population — the latter, except in occasional favored positions, 
such as the valleys of Shiraz and Ispahan, a land of mountain and desert, 
of intense heat and intense cold. 

Independent Tartary, lying immediately north of it, is less exposed to 
the hot winds of Arabia, but more so to the freezing ones of Siberia. Its 
vast dry plains are usually deserts, excepting on the borders of its exceed- 
ly rare streams. Great Bucharia, however, in the south-east, on the head 
waters of the Amoo (Oxus) — from the Capital of which Timour (Tamer- 
lane) issued on his desolating path of conquest — is a country of great fer- 
tility. Its natural beauties constitute a favorite theme with the poets and 
geographers of Persia and Arabia. Since the opening of the navigation of 
the Indus, it has annually sent some wool to Bombay, which constitutes a 
part of that which is shipped thence to England, and is known in Table 
8 as East Indian wool. 

Afghanistan and Beloochistan, protected on the north from the Siberian 
winds by the lofty Hindoo Koosh mountains, and less exposed on the south 
to those of Arabia, exhibits a milder and less variable climate than that of 
the conterminous regions of Persia. Among the Highlands of the north, 
and those skirting the Indus on the east, there is much good pasturage. 
Sir Alexander Barnes states that four-tifths of the whole surface of Cabul, 
a Province of the former, is excellent pasture land. The wool of the broad- 
tailed sheep of these countries also finds its way, by the Indus, to Bombay, 
and is classed as East India wool in the Table. 

From the high, cold, mountain regions of Thibet, Little Bucharia, &c., 
some wools are exported, through the same channels, which come under 
the same classificatiom These countries also export shawl wool.* Most 
of China north of the great Desert of Cobi is a cold, mountainous country. 
The southern portion, or China Proper, is too densely populated and closely 
cultivated to be devoted to pasturage. 

The wool trade which followed the opening of the Indus (the raw ma- 
terial being supplied by Afghanistan, Great Bucharia, Thibet and some 
of the Hindostanese Provinces) might doubtless be swelled into one 
of great importance, particularly by introducing finer breeds of sheep; 
but we can scarcely expect this, from what we know of the habits, agri- 
cultural and commercial, of the population. Among constant political 
changes wrought by the only Asiatic argument — the sword — the personal 
habits and occupations of the Asiatic remain ever the same, and are, per- 
haps, the best type of persistency to be found in anything short of im- 
mobile matter. Indeed, the stony features of the Sphinx have changed 
scarcely less through revolving generations, than have the ethnic ones of 
this great family of the human race ! 

Let us now pass to those regions of the Old World, south of the Equa- 
tor, included in the wool-growing zone. 

The southern extremity of Africa — the Cape of Good Hope — is included 



* The table-land of Thibet is elevated ]5,000 feet abov^ the level of the sea. Mr/Trail remarks that every 
animal here, including Carnivnra, produce that down under their liair which is kuowu aa shawl tcool — 
though that manufactured. c«me8 mainly {jcom a s^iecies of goat. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 119 



in the wool-growing zone. The following description of it is by Rev. 
lobert IMoifat, for twenty-three years a resident of it as the agent of the 
iondon Missionary Society :* 

" The Colony extends from west to east about six hundred miles, its average breadtli being 

ijabout two hundred Between the coast and the vast chain of mountains, beyond which 

lie the Karoo, the country is well watered, fertile and temperate. The other portious of 
jthe Colony, with few exceptions, and witliout a change in the seasons, appear to be doomed 
to perpetual sterility and drouth. The Karoo countiy, which is in the background of tlie 
jColony, is, as Lichstensteiu correctly describes it, a parched and arid plain, stretching out to 
isuch an extent that the vast hills by which it is terminated, or rather which divide it from 
other plains, are lost in the distance. The beds of numberless little rivers, (in which 
I water is rarely to be found) cross, like veins, in a thousand directions, this enormous space. 
ilThe course of them might, in some places, be clearly distinguished by the dark green of the 
mimosas spreading along their banks. Excepting these, as far as the eye can reach, no tree 

i or shnib is visible But even on these hills and sunburnt plains thousands of sheep 

[j pasture on a thin sprinkling of verdure and esculents The entire country, extending 

m some places hundreds of miles on each side of the Orange River, and frrmi where it emp- 
ties itself in the Atlantic, to beyond the 24th degree of east longitude, appears to have the 
I curse of Gilboa resting upon it. It is rare that rains to any extent or quantity fall in those 
regions. Extreme drouth continues for years together. The fountains are exceedingly few, 
precarious, and latterly many of these have been dried up altogether." 

According to Barrow, nearly seven-tenths of the Colony are destitute 
of vegetation during a greater part of the year. Sand drives before the 
winds, exercising an unfavorable influence on sheep and wool. Lions, 
tigers, wolves, hyenas, jackals, wild dogs, etc., are numerous on the very 
skirts of the settlements, making much vigilance necessary for the protec- 
tion of the sheep ; and they must be nightly driven into the settlements to 
be folded. But the natives have proved a vastly more destructive enemy 
than these.t The sheep introduced by the English colonists will probably 
eventually considerably increase beyond their present number in a country 
of so great extent, but we are scarcely authorized to believe that the Cape 
will ever take a high rank among the wool-producing countries of the 
world. 

That great island, or continent, known as New South Wales, or Aus- 
tralia, has a superficial area equaling that of the United States. But a 
limited portion of it, however, is included in the wool zone. All of Van 
Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, is in that zone. The export of wool fi'om 
these countries, as will be seen from the Table,| reached nearly ten million 
pounds in 1840 — nearly half that of Germany, including Austria and 
Prussia, and almost eight times that of Spain ! Here, as at the Cape of 
Good Hope, there are no woolen manufactories, and being Colonies of 
England, their export to that country exhibits their u'liole production. 

The soil, products, &c. of Australia are thus spoken of by Mr. McCul- 
loch : II 

" The ferlility of the soil in most parts of New-Holland that have been explored with any 
care, is veiy far indeed from conesponding with the glowing descriptions of some of its casual 
visitors, whose imaginations seem to have been dazzled by the magnificence of its botanical 
productions and the clearness and beauty of the climate. The truth is that the bad land 
bears a much greater proportion to the good in New-Holland than in almost any other coun- 
try with which we are acouainted Of course it is not to be supposed but that in a 

country of such vast extent there must be some fertile districts ; but along the east coast, with 
which we are best acquainted, these seem to be much more confined than might have been 
expected ; and the little experience we have had on the west side, at Swan River and other 
places, does not seem to lead to any more favorable conclusions." 

After stating that if the Government price of lands " is not a great deal 



* Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa, pp. 23—24. t See Letter V., and Note. 

X Including Port Philip, Swan River, and South Australia, the exports of which are carried out separately 
in Tables. 

II McCuUoch'a Com. Die. — Art. Sydney. 



120 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

above the mark in New-Holland, it must be a great deal below it in Upper 
Canada," Professor McCulloch continues : 

"If the Americans exacted the same piice for their public lands that we do, something 
might be found in llivor of extending the principle to Canada. They, however, do nothing 

of the sort, but sell much better land at a decidedly lower rate If slaves could be 

imported into a Colony of this sort, there might be some chance of its succeeding. But while 
land of the very best quality may be had in the Valley of the Mississippi for about a dollar an 
acre or less, we think lietter of the common sense of our countrymen than to suppose that 
any one able to cai-ry liimself across the Atlantic will resort to Austi'alia." 

Of the climate he says : 

" The climate of such parts of New South Wales as have been explored by the English is 

particularly mild and salubrious On the other liand, however, it has the serious 

defect of being too dry. It seems to be subject to the periodical recurrence of severe 
drouths. These prevail sometimes for 2, 3, or even 4 years together. The last ' gi-eat 
drouth' began in 1826, and did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell during the 
whole of this lengthened period, and for more than six months there was not a single shower. 
In consequence, the whole surface of the ground was so parched and withered that all minor 
vegetation ceased ; and even culinary regetables were raised with much difficulty. There 
was also a pretty severe drouth in 183-5. This is the great drawback of the Colony ; and were 
it more populous the drouths would expose it to still more serious difficulties." 

Another drouth occuiTed in 1841, and Mr. Hood thus describes its ef- 
fects on the sheep : * 

"It will be scarcely believed in England that the estimated number of sheep which have 
died within the last twelve months in the Colony from catan-h and drouth is 70,000 ! ! that 
colonists are compelled in order to save the dam from starvation, to cut the throat of her 
lamb ; that no means are adopted for securing a stock of lambs for next year ; or that a 
stockholder would offer 8,000 sheep to any one that would remove them from his runs, and 
finding that no one could be prevailed upon to taint his own flocks by accepting so danger- 
ous a present, had recourse to consuming them by fire, and had actually killed and burnt 
2,000." .... 

Of the country Mr. Hood remarks : 

" The first object on the arrival of every settler should be to procure a good country for 
his flocks, and this, I have elsewhere said, is his gi-and difficulty. Let him be wary on this 
point. Almost every desirable or habitable spot in the old countries, as the early settled 
districts are called, is already occupied." 

Some diseases seem to be peculiar to the country, or, rather, peculiarly 
inveterate in it. Mr. Youatt says : t 

" The sheep frequently suffer from the wild and poachy nature of a considerable portion 

of the pasture. The foot-rot seems to assume a character of its own If neglected, it 

speedily becomes inveterate and preys upon and desti-oys the animal. The losses occasioned 
by it in the early existence of the Colony were frightful." 

The astringency of the water and other causes have produced severe 
epidemics. In some years, some of the flockm asters have lost half of their 
sheep.:j; The scab is a prevailing disease, and Doct, Lang says : || 

" When a convict shepherd has a pique against his master, or even against his overseer, it 
is often in his power to subject the whole of his master's flock to this obnoxious disease, 
merely by driving his own flock a few miles from their usual pasture, and bi'inging them 
into contact with a diseased flock. The chief source of the wealth and prosperity of the 
Colony is thus, in a great measure, at the mercy of the most worthless of men." 

The cost of both land and labor is comparatively {id est, compared with 
the unoccupied lands of the United States) high. The Government mini- 
mum is 5s. ($1 15) per acre, but very little if any good land is sold at that 
price. Mr. Hood states that the portion of Capt. McArthur's immense 
estate which was obtained by purchase, cost, on the average, 7s. 6d. 
($1 72i) per acre. Shepherds receive from £,15 to c£20 ($69 to $92) with 

* (iuoted by Spooner in " History, Diseases, &c., of the Sheep." London, 1844, p. 67. 
t Youatt on Sheep, p. 189. J See Spooner, pp. 417-421. 

II Lang— Historical and Statistical Account, vol. i., p. 351. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 121 



ia house and rations, per annum ; ovei'seers of a superior description c£50 
to <€ 60 ($230 to S276),* also with a house and rations.t 
i The sheep are exposed to the depredations of various animals, but the 
iwild dog is their most dangerous enemy, with the exception of the run- 
xiway convict. The sheep are therefore folded nightly, guarded by a 
Iwatchman with his dogs, and with a fire to scare away the wild beasts.| 
One shepherd usually takes care of about 300 sheep, and " in the more 
feterile parts of the Colony, where three acres of the imcultivated ground are 
scarcely sufficient for the sujrjwrt of one sheej), the labor is very severe." 1| 
' Mr. Samuel Lawrence recently wrote me : 

i " I saw a gentleman from England a few monlhs since who has an admirable flock in 
Kew South Wales, ot twenty-five thousand sheep, and he assured me he had not received a 
1^ penny of income from them smce 1838." 

Van Diemen's Land (containing 28,000 square miles) is claimed by Mr 
Youatt§ to be superior in several respects to Australia as a wool-growing 
iipountry. Table 8 does not, however, show that its exports increase any 
jmore rapidly. 

j Both of these Islands, as colonies of Great Britain, send their wool to 
the latter duty fi'ee, and they save 1 cent per pound on wool costing less 
jthan 24 cents, and 2 cents on that exceeding that value. But this by no 
means offsets against the additional cost of freight, over that exported from 
I the United States, Hungary, or the south of Russia. While it is only 
;3,375 miles from New-York to London, it is not less than 13,000 miles 
[from Sydney or Hobart's Town to the latter place. Professor McCulloch 
[states (art. Sydney) that the expense of conveying a passenger to Sydney 
is about three times that of conveying one to Quebec. I see no reason 
! Hvhy a coiTesponding difference should not exist in the freights ; and in 
that case, freights from the United States would be two-thirds less than 
lljFrom Australia. 

I I pretend, Sir, to no power of vaticination on this subject, but the con- 
■jclusions which /draw from a review of all the foregoing facts are as follows : 
' 1. That wool-growing is never likely to permanently and importantly^ 
increase in any of the countries of Europe, unless it be in Hungary, Tur- 
key, and the south of Russia. 

2. That it is more likely to decrease than increase in Great Britain, 
jiFrance, Portugal and Italy. 

i| 3. That such a decrease is next to certain in Spain and Germany, (in- 
cluding Prussia and Austria in the latter,) excepting Hungary and Tran- 
jsylvania ; that the decrease will be much more considerable in Germany ; 
that its rapidity and extent will be proportioned to the rapidity and extent 
with which the market is supplied from countries which can grow wool 
cheaper, such as North and South America, Hungary, Southern Russia, 
and Australia. 

4. That wool-growing will undoubtedly largely increase in Hungary and 
Southern Russia — and that it ought to in European and Asiatic Turkey, 
but will not, extensively, until the character of the people and their po- 
litical institutions are changed. 

5. That it will also increase at the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and 
|Van Diemen's Land ; but that its economical extension in either of these 
[Countries is limited, especially if America becomes a competitor. 

* Calling the J'nglish shilling 23 cents, according to Report of Director of U. S. Mint, 1837. 

t Report of a Committee, &c., quoted by Mr. McCulloch — Com. Die. ; art. Sydney. 

J Cunningham's Two Years in New South Wales, vol. i., p. 254. 

II Youatt on the Sheep, p. 188. § Q?/em vide, p. 190. 

Tfl say "importantly," because Sweden, Norway, Denmark, &c., in that spirit of rendering themselves in- 
dependent of foreign supplies, which characterizes all nations, may, and probably will extend their wool 
culture J but it will be too unprofitable a struggle against Nature, to be carried to a very great extent. 

a 



122 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

6. That no part of the Eastern Continent or its islands, all things con- 
sidered, possess equal advantages for wool-growing with some parts of 
the United States. 1. The climate of many portions of the latter (in the 
South) is not excelled by that of the most favored situations in Hungary 
or Australia ; a'nd in this respect it is decidedly superior to the south of 
Russia. 2. The soils of vast sections of the United States, with the above 
climate, are more uniformly fertile and adapted to pasturage than those of 
either Hungary or Southern Russia — and, as a whole, are entirely supe- 
rior to those of Australia. 3. The regions alluded to in the United States, 
are better watered with running streams than either of the other named 
countries — have not the vast and unhealthy morasses of Hungary — and 
are not subject to the destructive drouths of Australia. 4. The land is 
cheaper in the United States than in Australia, and (my impression is) 
than in Hungary or Southern Russia ; and, in the Southern States, labor 
costs no more than in the two latter, and far less than in the former. 5. In 
accessibility and nearness even to the great European wool market, the 
United States stand on equal terms, at least, with Hungary and Southern 
Russia, and the distance from Sydney (in Australia) to London is nearly 
four times the distance from New-York to London. 6. In 7io respect do 
either of these countries, the most favored in the Old World, excel, in my 
judgment, for the purposes of Sheep Husbandry, large portions of the 
United States ; and I believe those portions of the United States can sell 
wool in the English market at a better profit on all the capital invested 
than either of the above countries, with the possible exception of the most 
favored portions of Hungary. 

Our surplus wools can, therefore, at any time, be exported to England 
at a reasonable profit. This is true, even of wools grown in the Northern 
States. In 1845, the United States exported wool, (mainly to England,) to 
the value of #22,153 ; and in 1846, to the value of $203,996. This was a 
commercial experiment, and although it is not understood to have resulted 
in any profit to the exporters, the wool sold at an advance on the Ameri- 
can prices current — and would have sold so as to have realized a handsome 
profit to the exporters, had it been properly sorted and otherwise prepared 
to meet the requisitions of the English market. Statements of this kind 
have been published by one of the most prominent of the exporters. It 
would seem, from Mr. Lawrence's statement, already quoted, that the 
prices of Australian wools have not yielded a profit over all expenses, 
during the same years. The quality and style of our wool have been 
praised by the English press, and are understood to have given high satis- 
faction to the English manufacturers. On the whole, then, we may regard 
this experiment as a successful one. The American prices current of those 
years were about 32 cents per pound. We have seen that the actual cost 
of wool (including all expenses, and 7 per cent, on price of land and sheep) 
in the Northern States may be set down at about 27 cents per pound.* 
These facts show that a remunerating price can be obtained for even North- 
ern wool in England — if a profit on investment considerably exceeding 
the highest legal rate of interest (7 per centum) is to be considered " re- 
munerating." And if this is true of the Northern wools of the United 
States, how much more so would it be of those of the South, the first cost 
of which has been estimated at less than one-third that of the former ! t 

I see not, therefore, a shadow of a reason why our Southern States 
might not embark, at once, with perfect safety, in an extensive production 
of wool, if they had only the foreign market to look to. I hesitate not to 

* See Letter V. t lb. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 123 



assert that they could drive all the European nations from the market, 
with the two or three exceptions heretofore specified ; and with these, as 
well as the most favored Austro-Oriental regions, they could main- 
tain a successful competition. The same remark is true of the Austro- 
Occidental regions of our own continent. And it is difficult to foresee 
the ultimate extent of this trans-Atlantic demand for wool. Vast portions 
of the Old World, in those zones where wool must eventually become the 
principal article of clothing, are but just stepping within the verge of 
civilization — just laying aside the skins and peltry of the pastoral nomad 
and the savage hunter, for garments of cloth. In 1771, England imported 
1,829,772 lbs. of wool ; in 1840, the import was 52,959,221 lbs. ! In 1771, 
the export of woolens was c£4,9G0,240. In 1840, the export of woolens 
was, c£5, 652,917, and of woolen and worsted yam c£3,796,644. Making 
all necessary allowance for the difference in prices, the increase in the ex- 
port bears no comparison whatever to that in the import. What seems to 
be the unavoidable conclusion 1 It is that the consumj)tion of a population 
of 27,000,000 (the population of Great Britain and Ireland) has thus enor- 
mously swelled within the period of sixty-nine years ! This too in a coun- 
try with a mild climate — which at the beginning of that period (1771) was 
as far advanced in social and political civilization, and the mass of whose 
people were as well clothed and better fed, than those of any nation 
on the Eastern Continent ! It is not necessary to follow up this idea. 
Progress is an inseparable condition of humanity,* and civilization is its 
fruit. With the latter, new wants — a demand for greater comforts and 
luxuries — steadily keep pace ; and with these again keeps pace the increase 
of population.! Both the latter causes conspire to swell the demand for 
cloths ; and both causes are at work in this Nineteenth Century, in a ve- 
locity of ratio which would fill aMalthus and Ricardo with consternation — 
if, indeed, it did not convince them of the fallacy of their gloomy theories. 
I dare to predict that the time will come when the present Russian Em- 
pire will consume a greater amount of woolens than the whole Eastern 
Continent now does ! This may not come to pass in a day or a century — 
but unless retarded by unnatural, not to say unusnul causes, our posterity 
in the third or fourth remove will be likely to witness it ! Away, then, with 
those fallacious fears of over-pi-oduction of cotton, bread-stuffs, etc. — the 
opposite extreme of Malthusianism — which have disturbed the repose of 
producers who are not content to let the great natural cuiTents of demand 
and supply regulate each other ; or rather, who are not content with those 
fair and just profits which they would receive under such an order of 
things. I 

But the American wool-grower is not compelled to look to the European 
market, unless he enormously increases his own production — and contin- 
ues to increase it with the increase of the population. The Census of 1840 
shows that the number of sheep in the United States, in 1839, was nearly 
20,000,000. These have been steadily increasing, and probably now greatly 
exceed that number. Yet these have never supplied the demand of our 



* This may not be thought to Record with preceding statements in relation to the tmchangeability of 
Asiatic character and customs. Particular families or races of mankind have always advanced slowly, but 
the course of the world, as a whole, is onward. The circle of civilization widens, and races vi'hich come 
in contact with it, receive it, or are conquered and absorbed by the civilized races. 

t When I speak of luxuries promoting the increase of population, I do not use the word in its invidious 
sense. 1 mean by it those things which, though not. Btrictly speaking, necessaries, tend to promote human 
comfort. 

t I mean this remark in no ultra spirit. Governments must be supported and resources raised. Inci- 
dental protection may be justly afforded to the products of agricultural or mechanical skill, under certain 
circumstances. But the fewer of these restrictions that are found necessary, the more rapidly, as a general 
rule, the wealth and comfort of mankind and nations are advanced. 



124 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



oion ')nanv factories alone. The following Table* will show the value of 
the imjjorts of wool into the U. S. from 1837 to 1847 : 

TABLE No. 9. 





Average im- 
ports of 1837, 
18.38 & 1839. 


Average im- 
ports of 1840, 
1841 & 184a. 


t Import of 
1843. 


Import of 
1844. 


Import of 

1845. 


Import of 
1816. 


Wool not costing 
to exceed 7 els. 
a lb 


{ $558,458 
801,087 


$759,646 
1.004.312 


$190,352 
54 695 


$754,441 
97,019 


$1,553,789 
136,005 


$1,107,305 
26.921 


Exc'dingTcts.alb 


Total 1 $1,359,545 | $1,763,958 j $24.5,047 


$851,460 


$1,689,794 


$1,134,226 



It may be a matter of interest to know from what countries these wools 
were imported. The following Table | will give this information for the 
last fiscal year, (1846,) and will also give a general idea of our wool trade. 



TABLE No. 10. 



Whence Imported. 



Russia 

Hanse Towns 

Holland 

Dutch West Indies 

Belgium 

England 

Scotland 

Gibraltar 

Cape of Good Hope 

British West Indies 

British American Colonies. 

France 

Spain 

Italy 

Trieste (Austria) 

Turkey 

Morocco (Africa) 

Mexico 

Brazil 

Ararentine Republic 

Chili 

Peru , 

Asia, generally 



Total . 



Wools not exceedittg 7 cents 
per pound. 



Quantity. 



Pounds. 
955,163 
6,966 

10,774 

7,177 

1,188,800 

21,132 

207,006 

83,662 

8.694 

168,589 

84,799 

20,730 

81,156 

111.981 

5,744,328 

72.816 

425,148 

4.5, 215 

4,295,659 

1,819,772 

122.686 

945,729 



16,427,952 



Dollars 
60.678 
330 

556 

248 

35,944 

1,382 

12,339 

6,810 

537 

9,543 

5,424 

1,425 

4.720 

8,151 

398,822 

4,554 

26,984 

3,083 

327,572 

130,837 

8.588 

58,778 



1,107,305 



Wools exceeding 7 cents 
per pound. 



Quantity. 



Pounds. 



13,820 
170 



1,407 
28,406 



522 

39,346 

396 



43,831 
2,397 



130.295 



Pounds. 



8,433 
93 



775 
6,668 



70 

4,562 

40 



6,011 



That the course of trade indicated by the above Table, will, as has been 
already intimated, be materially affected by the New Tariff, I think there 
can be but little doubt. That of several of the places enumerated, too, 
has been, heretofore, merely a transit one. 

To the following letter from the most extensive, and concededly leading 
American woolen manufacturer, I would call your particular attention. 
Several of its declarations, placed in italics, by me, are highly significant. 

Lowell, Mass., Feb. 10, 1847. 
Henry S. Randall, Esq., Cortland Village, N. Y. 

My Dear Sir: Your very kind and Interesting favor of the 27th ult. duly came to hand 
and should, if practicable, have received an earlier reply. The Inisiness of wool-frvowing in 
this country is destined to be of immense importance, and I am firm in the belief that luUhin 
twenty-five years we shall produce a greater quantity tha?i any other 7t,ation. 



* Compiled by me from Reports of the .Secretai-y of the Treasury. 

t The fiscal year 1842 cndnd on the 30th of September. Since then, the returns of imports and exports 
have been made up to the 30th of June. This year, therefore, embraces the imports of nine months only, 
ending on June 30, 1843; and subsequent years end 30th of June, 1844, 1845, and so on. 

t Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1846. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



125 



.• You ask, " Is the present home demand supphed ?" There is not enough annually raised 
yx the country by 10^000,000 lbs. to meet the demand of the manufactories. 

You ask, " What countries we can export wool to, &c. ?'' This countiy will not export 
'Wool regularly for fifteen years, /or the reason that the consumption toiU increase as rapidly 
as the production. I can point out articles made of wool now imported, which will require 
thirty millions of pounds of that of a medium and fine quality, to supiply the consump- 
tion 

The business of manufacturing wool in this country is on a better basis than ever before, 
inasmuch as the character, skill and capital engaged in if are suck that foreign competi- 
tion IS DEFIED. A very few years and all articles of wool used here will be of home manu- 
facture. 

Now I beg of you to keep the wool-growei-s steady to the mark. Let them aim to excel 
in the blood and condition of their flocks, and the day is not distant when they will be amply 
remunerated. I shall always have gi"eat pleasure in hearing from you, and remain 
*■' Yours most truly, SAM. LAWRENCE. 

Mr. Lawrence lias certainly got the annual deficit of home wools low 
enough. Table 10 shows that it was upward of 16,000,000 lbs. during the 
last fiscal year, 1846. This, of itself, is something of a margi?i for the 
South, or some other new domestic producer, to fill ! 

Hitherto we have simply considered the amount of wool necessary to 
supply our mawufactories. But these establishments fall very far short of 
working up all the wool consumed in the United States, even exclusive of 
home-made fabrics. The following Table* will show the value of the 
woolens imported for twenty-five years, up to and including 1845 : 

TABLE No. 11. 



1821. 


. $7,437,737 


1826. 


$8,431,974 


1831. 


$12,627,229 


1836. 


$21,080,003 


1841. 


$11,001,939 


1822. 


..12,185.904 


1827. 


. 8,742,701 


1832. 


.. 9,992,424 


1837. 


-. 8,500.292 


1842. 


-. 8,375,725 


1823. 


.. 8,268,038 


1828. 


. 8,679,505 


1833. 


..13.262,509 


1838. 


..11,512,920 


1843- 


-. 2.472.154 


1824. 


.. 8,386,597 


1829. 


. 6,881,489 


1834. 


..11,879,328 


1839. 


-.18,57.5,945 


1844. 


.. 9,475,762 


1825. 


.11,392,264 


1830. 


. 5,776,396 


1835. 


-.17.834,424 


1840. 


.. 9,071,184 


1845. 


-.10,666,176 



Here is another and still broader " margin''^ for both the American 
Wool-Grower and the American Mam/factttrcr to fill ! 

With a country well adapted to the production of wool as any the sun 
shines on — which, all things considered, can produce it ?nore cJicaph/ than 
any extended portion of any trans-Atlantic country — shall we continue to 
import raw wool 1 

Whether we should continue to import woolens is sufficiently answered 
by the last paragraph but one of Mr. Lawrence's letter, fully sustained as 
the facts therein set forth are by those infallible tests — the dividends of our 
manufacturing establishments. The minimum of these, in well managed 
establishments, has already been stated to be about ten per centum per 
annum,t and in Mr. Lawi-ence's own gi-eat establishment the dividend of 
1846 was ffteen per cent. Does any one suppose that the manufacturers 
of England, with all the advantage they can derive from cheaper labor | — 
(but with vastly higher prices for suitable sites and buildings — land taxes, 
parochial taxes, income taxes — freights and duties on imported wools, 
etc. etc.) — do or can make dividends touching even the lowest rate above 
stated ] They cannot. || 

* Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 1845. t See Letter VII. 

X Though not directly advised on the point, I take it for granted that the cost of machinery, also, is some- 
what less in England. 

II It may be said that the two last-named expenses fall on the consumer. They doubtless would, but the 
English manufacturer has to compete with those of France and the United rotates, a much larger propor- 
tion of whose stock is of home growth— the latter entirely, in fine fabrics. I'he abrogation of the Corn-Laws 
will be of immense advantage to the English manufacturer, and enable him to better compete with other 
countries. But while the Bank of England ordinarily discounts paper at from 3 to 4 per cent., and while 
this is the common rate of interest in that country, it could not be expected that manufacturing capital 
would be allowed to draw 8 or 10, and much less 15 per cent. Such dividends, in a country whose 
uninvested capital, or that drawing so low a rate of interest, is so superabundant, would at once invite a 
competition which would speedily bring the profits of manufacturing capital down to a level with those of 
other commercial capital. We may, therefore conclade that no such dividends are made. 



126 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. I 

^ -_ ■ 1 

Is it said that our manufactiiring companies have often been com- ^ 

pelled to suspend, or break up, even under lav\^s as favoTable to them as j 

those now in operation 1 The I'eason for tliis is too pointedly and perti- i 

nently stated by Mr. Law^rence to require any addition at my hands, in ; 

the following extract from a letter to me, bearing date April 13, 1847; and | 

it will be seen in the concluding sentence that the bold and manly decla- ' 

rations of his preceding letter were not the result of a casual or momentary i 

confidence, but are deliberately reasserted : li 

" The manufiiclure of wool has often been disastrous to pai'ties who have embarked in it . 

for many reasons, two of which are suflicieiit — a want of capital and a want of skill. These 
difficulties are being obviated. Capitrdists are more ready to embark under certain auspices, 
and the amount of skill is very fast mcreasing, so that this branch is on a footing not to be \ 
moved." i 

Undisturbed by those changes of vacillating legislation, or those move- ■ 
ments in the National Legislature pointing to such changes — at one time 
enormously pampering the manufacturing interest, and leading to over- ' 
action and rash adventure — at another, threatening it with disaster and ' 
utter subversion — our manufacturers will steadily, nay, rapidly advance. : 
If NOW LET ALONE, they vvill soon not only " drf// Jorcign co/Jijjetition" in 
the home market, but there is not a single good reason to prevent them ' 
from defijing it in the great and opening niarket of South America, and 
even in the Old World. Some evils or errors in commercial legislation 
are less to be deprecated than constant changes. The present Tariff, so 
far as it affects wool and woolens, is the result of a compromise of inter- 
ests. It may not be perfect in principle or detail. But it does not seem 
to flagrantly favor or oppress any interest. I speak not in the spirit of a 
politician, or of the representative of an interest or section, when I express 
the hope that no change will be made or attempted in this portion of the 
Tariff, until the lapse of years shall bring about other changes requiring 
it, or until ample experience shall clearly call for a revision of the system. 

I have spoken of two " margins " to be filled by the Ameiican wool- 
grower — the present deficit in supplying our own manufactories, and sec- 
ondly, the p)rospcctive one, as our manufactures increase, so as to overtake 
and then keep pace with the consumption of an increasing population. 
The demands of our manufactories will advance pari passu with the ^wo 
duction, Mr. Lawrence predicts, for at least fifteen years. Why not foi 
fifty, or a hundred! Lotus glance at the prospective consumption, and see 
if, independent of exportations, it is likely to require any curbs or limits to 
be placed on -production or manifacture. 

In the debates in Congress on the Tariff in 1828-9, Mr. Mallary esti- 
mated the consumption of woolens in our country at $72,000,000 per 
ann. ;— $10,000,000 imported ; $22,000,000 manufactured ; $40,000,000 
home-made. The Committee of the " Friends of Domestic Industry," 
who met in New-York in 1831, reported that the proportion between the 
amount of wool worked up in factories to that in families was as 3 to 2 ; 
that the entire annual product of wool and its manufactures in the U. S. 
was $40,000,000. These are the only accessible published estimates which 
now occur to me. 

The Census of 1840 shows that the value of woolens made in our manu- 
factories in 1839, was $20,690,999. The import of foreign woolens the 
same year was $18,575,945, and of raw wool* $1,359,445. It should be 
remarked, however, that the import of woolens is considerably higher than 
that of any year before or since. Taking the average of the same three 

* Taking the average product of 1837-8-9, as in Table 9. The separate import of 1839 is not before me. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 127 

years for which the import of the raw wool is given,* (1837-8-9,) it would 
reach but $12,863,051. If we suppose the consumption to equal the sup- 
ply, this would give $33,560,050 as the value o'l l\\e factory-made woolens 
consumed in the United States in 1839. I confess I have no data other than 
conjectural ones, to determine the amount of the home-made manufactures 
for that or any other year ; nor do I know that any other person has, or can, 
have such information. The United States Census, singularly enough 
does not include this as a separate item. It strikes me, however, that Mr. 
Mallary's estimate is too high, and that of the Report of the " Friends of 
Domestic Industry " too low. The proportion of home-made to factory 
woolens is, no doubt, annually decreasing, for reasons already stated ;t but 
as far back as 1839, it would perhaps be a fair estimate to set them down 
as even. This would give $67,120,100 as the value of the woolens con- 
sumed by a population of 17,069,453, or nearly $4 per head. Allowing 
that every dollar in the manufactured article would represent one pound 
of stock, or raw vs^ool — and taking slave-cloths, blankets, carpets, coarse 
home-made fabrics, factory plains, etc., all into account, a dollar is an am- 
ple sum to offset against every pound of the raw material — it follows that 
our whole population annually consume four pounds of wool per head. 
Judge Beatty of Kentucky, in an estimate published originally in the 
American Agriculturist, which has been much quoted, sets down the con- 
sumption as about 6 lbs. per head. An ordinary Northern faimer or la- 
borer, in comfortable circumstances, will consume about 20 lbs. per an- 
num •,\ the poorer one not far from 15 lbs. ; a boy of 8 years old, full 4 lbs. ; 
a girl of that age (in the country, where females are dressed, in woolens,) 
something more than half of that amount. In the cities and villages there is 
a large class whose consumption for dress ranges from 30 to 40 and even 50 
lbs., and, including carpets, much more. A Southern slave consumes from 
8 to 10 lbs. Four pounds, therefore, would not seem to be a high es- 
timate, per head, for our whole population. 

Let us now take a glance at the increase of population in the United 
States. The six different Censuses give the following results : 

TABLE 12. 



1 790, Population 3,929,827 

1800 5,305,941 

1810 7.239,814 



1820, Population 9,638,191 

1830, 12,866,020 

1840 17,069,453 



It will thus be seen that our population increases at a compound ratio 
of about three per cent, per annum, which would double it — assuming 
three per cent, to be the precise rate of increase — in 23 years 164 days. 

Cheap and abundant provisions — a supply of fertile lands for all who 
choose to occupy them, &c. — the causes which have conspired to give so 
rapid an increase, hitherto, still operate to as great an extent as ever, and 
will continue to, at all events, for half a century, after the Census of 1840. 
Suppose the rate of increase, then, decreases to two per cent., which would 
double the population, reckoning as before, once in about 38 years, and 



* In Table 9. t Letter VII. 

X He will wear out, during a year, 1 coat, 4 yards ; 1 pair pants, 3 yards; 1 vest, 1 yard ; 1 pair flannel 
drawers, 2 yards : 1 flannel shirt, 2} yards ; 4 pair hose, mittens, &c , IJ lbs., which, calling a yard a pound 
of wool, all round, would amount "to 14 lbs. His extra or holiday suit. 8 yards, will last 3 year.", and bis 
overcoat, 6 yards, 4 years— making the annual consumption of both, 3 1-6 yards. Two flannel shirts, 10 
■yards, will last two persons say 3 years, making the annual consumption of one, 1 1-9 yards. No account is 
here made of coverlids, wool hats, carpets, still used by many, and the latter, more or less of it. to be found in 
the houses of nearly all farmers in ■' comfortable circumstances." It will be seen that 20 lbs. of wool per 
head is a moderate "estimate. The above enumeration would not equal to exceed two-thirds, and in some 
cases half the clothing annually consumed by the smartly dressing young men who have labored on my 
farm! 



128 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



that it doubles twice at this rate — and the following would be the result, 
and the amount of wool required by the population at the periods indicated : 

TABLE No. 13. 



Year. 


Population. 


Amount of Wool. 
lae,.-) .55,624 
273.111.248 


Year. 


Population. 


Amount of IVool. 


l8H:i-4 

lH8(i-7 


34,138,906 

68,277,812 


192.5 

1963 


],^6.555,624 
273.111.248 


546,222,496 
1,092,444,993 



Thus in a little over one hundred years, our population is likely to ex- 
ceed the present one of Europe, (which is 233,500,000,) and we have no7v a 
sufficient territory to sustain it ! At 3 lbs. of wool per head the number 
of sheep requisite to supply the Ji07fie demand in 1963, would be over 
364,000,000 ! — far more than are now to be found on the whole globe ! — 
Such are some of the reasonable expectations which may be formed of the 
future 2:)rospects of the Home wool market. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 129 



i LETTER X. 

I BREEDS OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES. 

' Enumeration of Imported Breeds... No indigenous ones..." Native " Sheep — their Origin — Views of Mr 
Touatt — Mr. Livingston — their true Origin— their Early Increase in New-England.. Vanderdonk's description 
of the Sheep and their increase introduced from Holland into New-Netiierland (New-York). . .Character- 
tatics of the Native sheep. . .Account of the Introduction of Merinos into the United States. . -Their valua- 
tion atdifierent periods.. .The Spanish sub-varieties — Merged in the United States. . .Purity of blood of the 
descendants of the Early Importations.. .Spurious Merinos. ..Weight of Fleece of the Spani-sh and French 
(Rambouiilet) families. ..Description of the latter... American F'lmilies — their Charactei.etics.. Doctor Em- 
Bions's Measurements of the F"'ineness of Wool of individuals of the American, Spanish, and French families 
|1 — also of other breeds.. The Characteristics of the Merino — its Crosses. . .The Saxon Sheep — its Origin — 
ItV'arietie? — Treatment in Germany. . .Introduction into the United States.. .Purity of blood in our present 
ijHocks — Weight of Fleece — Characteristics. ..The New Leicester or "Bakewell" — Oji^'in — Character in 
i-:ngland — Introduction into the United States — Valuation in the latter — Characteristics. . .South-Down 
tSheep — Orighi — Characteristics — Introduction into the United States. .Mr Ellman's description of a perfect 
Biiimal. -Cot^wold Sheep — Original Stock— Crossed— the improved variety — Characteristics of— Introduction 
Into the United States.. Cheviot Sheep — importation into the United States — -Original Stock— Crossed — 
limproved variety — Characteristics... Broad-Tailed Sheep— Introduction into our Country — Characteristics. 

I Dear Sir : It is believed by those competent to judge, and who have 
'investigated the subject, that our country now possesses every known breed 
of sheep which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. In pro- 
ceeding to give an account of the sheep of the United States, I do not 
tleem it necessary to take up your time with a detailed liistory of each 
race. The zoologist or breeder anxious to obtain this information, will 
iind it given with great elaboration and accuracy, in the admirable work 
])on Sheep by the late Mr. Youatt.* 

The principal breeds in the United States are the " Native," (so called) ; 
the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries w^hose 
•names they bear; the New Leicester or Bakewell, the South-Down, the 
fCotswold, the Cheviot, and the Lincoln from England. The common 
sheep of Holland were early imported by the Dutch emigrants who origi- 
nally colonized New-Yoi'k, but have long since ceased to exist as a dis- 
tinct variety. The Broad-Tailed Sheep of Asia and Africa have several 
times been introduced from Persia, Tunis, Asia Minor, etc. 

Chancellor Livingston also speaks of two " races as 'indigenous ' to this 
country, which we have not enumerated, as it is not known to the Com- 
Imittee t that they are now bred in any portion of the United States, 
Iviz., the Otter and Smith's Island Sheep, breeds said to have been discov- 
lered on two islands on our Atlantic coast. An almost infinite variety of 
crosses have taken place between the Spanish, English, and ' native ' fami- 
lies. To so great an extent, indeed, has this been carried, that there are, 



Also in Mr. Bischoffs. Spooner's, etc., (English) works, and Mr. Morrel's "American Shepherd" — the 
historical parts of all of which are compiled mainly from Mr. Youatt 

t At the Annual Meeting of the New-York Stale .Agricultural Society, 1837, a Committee was appointed to 
report at the next Annual Meeting of the Society, on the " Condition and Comparative Value of the Several 
Breeds of Sheep in the United States." The Committee consisted of Henry S. Randall of Cortland, Henry 
1). Grove of Rensselaer, John B. Duane of Schenectady, Francis Rotch of Otsego, and C. N Bement of Alba- 
ny. These sentlemen were at the time breeders of all or nearly all the most important varieties, and it was 
;expected that each would write that portion of the Report treating of the one or ones bred by himself The 
(Committee, however, desired — or rather required me to write the whole Report, which I did, whh the 
jpxception of quotations from authors. The Committee met in Albany, prior to the presentation of the Re- 
iport, and the late Thomas Dunn and several other breeders were present by invitation. The Report was 
unanimously adopted by the Committee, and assented to by the breeders present. I do not now quote or 
adopt all the conclusions of that Repoit Experience has compelled me to modify some of my opinions, 
land actual changes in the breeds have taken place. But I have mentioned the above facts, to show the au- 
thority on which the statements which I have quoted, rest ; and also because the Report has been often 
'quoted from, sometimes without any credit, and sometimes erroneously credited. 

I [To save constant reference, it will be understood that all the matter quoted in this Letter from the Re- 
1 port will, unlike the cases where Mr. Randall quotes at any length from the writings of others, be printed 
Lin the same type with the body of the Letter, and simply marked with quotation pomts. Publisher.] 



130 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. i 

. —_ . .{ 

comparatively speaking, few flocks in the United States that preserve en- i 
tire the distinctive characteristics of any one breed, or that can lay claim to j 
unmixed purity of blood." ' ') 

Native Sheep. — " Although this name is popularly applied to the com- ! 
mon coarse-wooled sheep of the country, w^hich existed here j^reviously i 
to the importation of the improved breeds, there is, properly speaking, no » 
race of sheep ' native ' to Noith America. Mr. Livingston, in speaking 
of a race as ' indigenous,' only quoted the language of another,* and his i 
informant was either mistaken as to the fact, or misapprehended the term, i: 
The only animal of the genus Ovis Aries, originally inhabiting this coun- i| 
try, is the Argali,t known to our entei-pi'ising travelers and traders who si 
have penetrated to the Rocky Mountains, where the animal is found, as i 
the Big Horn.| Though the pelage of the Argali approximates but little itj 
to the wool of the domestic sheep, they are, as is well known, considered ^ 
by naturalists to have belonged originally to the same species ; and the . 
changes which have taken place in the form, covering, and habits of the 3 
latter, are attributed to his domestication, and the care and skill of Man | 
during a long succession of years. I 

" The common sheep of the United States were of foreign and mostly of \ 
English origin. The writer of the volume on Sheep in the ' Farmer's Se- i 
ries,' [Mr. Youatt,] speaks of them as ' although somewhat differing in va- 1' 
rious districts, consisting chiefly of a coarse kind of Leicester, originally d 
of British breed.'|| Others have seen, or fancied they saw, in some of i| 
them, a strong resemblance to the South-Downs. Mr. Livingston was of 'jj 
this number.§ But it is far more probable that they can claim a common i 
descent from no one stock. Our ancestors emigrated from different sec- i; 
tions of the British Dominions, and some portion of them from other parts i 
of Europe. They brought their implements of husbandry, and their do- ^ 
mestic animals, to fertilize the wilderness. Each, it would be natural to j 
suppose, made choice of the favorite breed of his own immediate district | 
to transport to the New World, and the admixture of these various races , 
formed the mongrel family now under consideration. Amid the perils of 
war, and the incursion of beasts of prey, they were preserved with sedu- 
lous care. As early as 1676, Mr. Edward Randolph, in a ' Narrative to 
the Lords of the Privy Seal,' speaks of New-England as ' abounding with 
sheep.' "IT . . . 

Vanderdonk, writing in 1790, thus speaks of the sheep introduced from 
Holland into New-Netherland (now New-York) by the Dutch emi- 
grants : — 

" Sheep are also kepi in the New-Netherlands, but not as many as in New-England, where 
the weaving business is carried on, and where much more attention is paid to them than by 
the New-Netherlanders. The sheep, however, tluive well, and become fat enough. I have 
seen mutton there so exceedingly fat that it was too luscious and offensive. The sheep breed 
well and are healthy ; they find good pasture in summer, and good hay in winter ; but the 
flocks require to be guarded and tended on account of the wolves, for which pui-pose men 
cannot be si)ared. There is also a more important hindrance to the keeping of sheep, which 
are chiefly cidtivated for theii- wool. New-Netherland is a woody country throughout, being 
almost eveiywhere beset with trees, stumps and brushwood, wherein the sheep pasture, 
and by wliich they lose most of their wool. Tliis is not apparent until they are sheared, 
when the fleeces tuni out vei-y light." 

" The common sheep yielded a wool only suited to the coarsest fabrics, 
averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from 3 to 3^ lbs of wool to the 

" Livingston's Essay on Sheep, pp. 56, 60. t Godman's American Natural History. 

t The " woi'ly sheep " of the Rocky Mountains, the description of which is quoted by Mr Morrel, (Ameri- 
can .Shepherd, p 131,) from Capt. Bonneville, is tigoai. It will be found described in Godman's Natural 
History, vol ii. p. 326, a supra. 

IJ Vol on Sheep, p. 134. § Essay on Sheep, p 53. ^ Colonial papers of Maaaachusctts. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



131 



'jtleece. They were slow in arriving at maturity, compared with the im- 
i^roved English breeds, and yielded when fully grown, from 10 to 14 lbs. 
C)f a middling quality of mutton to the quarter. They were usually long- 
iegged, light in the fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back, al- 
though some rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, 
ijand some approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. The 
jcommon sheep were excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely des- 
jtitute of care, and without shelter, one hundred per cent, of lambs, and in 
femall flocks a still larger proportion. These, too, were usually dropped in 
March or the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, their impa- 
jtience of restraint almost equaled that of the untamed Argali, from which 
ijthey were descended ; and in many sections of our country it was common 
to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with little regard to inclosures, 
jiover the possessions of their owner and his neighbors, leaving a large por- 
tion of their wool adhering to bushes and thorns, and the remainder placed 
aearly beyond the possibihty of carding by the Tory weed ( Gynoglossum 
\vfficinale) and Burdock (Arctium lappa) so common on new lands. 
j " The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly disap- 
Ifpeared, having been universally crossed, to a greater or less extent, with 
[the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and second cross with 
Ithe Merino, resulted in a decided improvement, and produced a variety 
exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool only for domestic pur- 
poses. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being hairy on the thighs, dew- 
lap, &c. ; but the general quahty is much improved ; the quantity is con- 
siderably augmented ; the carcass is more compact and nearer the ground ; 
and they have lost their unquiet and roving propensities. The cross with the 
ilSaxon, for reasons which we shall hereafter allude to, has not been generally 
so successful. With the Leicester and Downs the improvement, so far as 
[form, size, and a propensity to take on fat are concerned, is manifest." 




MERINO RAM. 

\I>ejM,nce, 17 months old, bred by and the property of Henry S. Randall.] 



132 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

Spanish Merino. — " The history of this celebrated race of sheep, so far " 
as it is known, has so often been brought before the public that it is deemed 
unnecessary here to recapitulate it. The first importation of them into | 
the United States took place in 1801. Four were shipped by Mr. ' 
Delessert, a banker of Paris, three of which perished on the passage.* 
The fourth arrived in safety at Rosendale, a farm owned by that gentle- 
man near Kingston, in this State. The same year Mr. Seth Adams, of j 
Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, two pairs were i 
sent from France by Mr. Livingston, the American Minister, to his estate 
on the Hudson ; and later the same year, Mr. Humphrys, our Spanish : 
Minister, shipped two hundred, on his departure from that country, for the ! 
United States." Hon. William Jai"vis, of Weathersfield, Vermont, then j 
Ameiican Consul at Lisbon, sent home large and valuable flocks in 1809, J 
1810, and 1811. The particularly favorable circumstances for obtaining ] 
the choicest sheep of Spain, under which these were procured, you will j 
find detailed in a letter tome from Mr. Jarvis, dated December, 1841, pub- I 
lished in the Transactions of the New- York State Agricultural Society of j 
that year. Various subsequent importations took place, which it is not ! 
important to particularize. i 

The Merinos "attracted little notice, until our difl'iculties with Ensfland led I 
. ... . ^ 

to a cessation of commercial intercourse with that power, in 1808 and 1809. ' 

The attention of the country being then directed toward manufacturing "^ 

and wool-growing, the Merino rose into importance. So great, indeed, ;| 

was the interest excited, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a ■ , 

head was paid for them." Unfortunately some of the later importations " ar- ; j 

rived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the ' 

ovine race, the scab and foot-rot. These evils and the increased supply, -'j 

soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part of their former 

price ; they could now be bought for $20 a head. "When, however, it was ; 

established, by actual experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate, as ; 

had been feared by many, in this country, and that they became readily ' 

acclimated, they again rose into favor. But the prostration of our manu- \\ 

factories, which soon after ensued, rendered the Merino comparatively of j 

little vahie, and brought ruin to numbers who had purchased them at their ! 

previous high prices. The rise which has since taken place in the value jj 

of fine wool, as well as the causes which led to it, are too recent and well li 

undei'stood to require particular notice. With the rise of wool, the valua- ' 

tion of the sheep which bear it, has of course kept pace. 

" The Merino has been variously described. This arises from the fact ' 

that it is but the general appellation of a breed, comprising several varie- h 

ties, presenting essential points of difference in size, form, quality and 'i 

quantity of wool." And writers of high authority differ even in their -j 

descriptions of these families or varieties. M. Lasteyrie, so celebrated as 

a writer on sheep, and particularly on the Merino, and Mr. Jarvis directly j! 

contradict each other on several jioints.f It is scarcely necessary now ji 

to quote their conflicting statements, or inquire which is right — as the ques- ' 

tions involved possess no practical importance. These families have, gen- j, 

erally, been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and other 'i\ 

countries which have received the race from Spain. Purity of il/crmct ]\ 

blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors, has long || 

since been the only standard which has guided sensible men in selecting "j 

sheep of this breed. Families have indeed sprung up, in this country, ex- | 



* Archives of Useful Knowledce. — Cultivator, vol. i. p. 183. 

t See Lasteyrie on Sheep — or, if not accessible — his statements quoted by Mr. Youatt, p. 156. For Mr, 
Jarvis's statements, see his Letter to L. D. Gregory, quoted in American Shepherd, pp. 73, 74. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 133 

hibiting wider points of difference than did those of Spain. In some cases 
they doubtless owe it to particular courses of breeding — but more often, 
probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. 

The point has, indeed, been occasionally mooted, whether there are 
any Merinos in the United States, descendants of the early importations, 
o? unqucstionahle purity of blood. That there are, has been recently defi- 
nitely settled by a connected chain of undisputable and undisputed testimo- 
ny,* not necessary here to be repeated. That, on the other hand, in the 
recent rush of speculation, a marvelous facility has been evinced, in some 
instances, in suddenly recollecting lost links in the chain of pedigree — or 
in forgetting others which it would not be expedient to remember, no one 
would require any proof who has seen some of the animals which have 
been hawked through the country as full-bloods. 

" Taken collectively, the Spanish rams, according to Chancellor Living- 
ston, yield about eight and a half pounds of wool, and the ewes five, which 
loses half in washing — making four pounds and a quarter the average 
weight of fleece of the rams, and two and a half the average of the ewes.t 
Some varieties considerably exceed this estimate, and probably it would 
fall short if applied to the prime sheep of any vai'iety." 

The fleeces of the Merinos at Rambouillet in France, it is stated in the 
Report of M. Gilbert, to the National Institute, quoted by Mr. Living- 
ston,| weigh, in the rams, from twelve to thirteen pounds (unwashed) wool 
— taking rams and ewes together, it has " not quite attained to eight pounds, 
after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly, which are sold sepa- 
rately." Mr. Livingston remarks that the French pound is about one- 
twelfth heavier than the English ; but on the other hand, that from the man- 
ner of folding and housing sheep and feeding them on fallows in France, 
they are very dirty, and lose 60 per cent, in washing."|| This would brino- 
the average of the Rambouillet flock to about four pounds, exclusive of 
tag and belly wool, 

M. Lasteyrie gives the following annual averages per head of the Ram- 
bouillet flock : 1796, 6 lbs. 9 oz. ;''l797, 8 lbs. ; 1798, 7 lbs. ; 1799, 8 lbs. ; 
1800, 8 lbs. ; 1801, 9 lbs. 1 oz. — This is unleashed wool, and will lose half 
in washing. Mr. Livingston's imported ewes averaged 5 lbs. 2 oz. ; his 
rams 6 lbs. 7 oz., of unwashed wool.§ The later importations will, judg- 
ing from the specimens I have seen, average much higher than the latter. 
They are a large sheep, with good, but not the best, quality of Merino 
wool — some of the larger stocks being rather coarse — and not very uni- 
form, one with another, either in their appearance or fleeces — and are 
most remarkable for the loose pendulous skin which hangs about their 
necks, and lies in folds about their bodies. They are free from hair — 
their wool, which is of good style, opens with a creamy color, and rich lus- 
tre, on a fine rose-colored skin. Their wool is long on the back, shortish 
on the belly — thick, but not so thick as that of many of the American Me- 
rinos — very yolky, but destitute of concrete external gum. 

The American Merino has, as already intimated, diverged into famihes 
or varieties presenting wide points of difference. The minor distinctions 
are numerous, but they may all, perhaps, be classed under three general 
heads. The first, is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, 
carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine — free from hair in 
properly bred flocks — somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much 
so as the Rambouillets — bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some 

* This testimony will be found in a Letter from me to A. B. Allen, Esq., in the December No of the 
American Agriculturist, 1844, and in the Cultivator, I think, of the same date — if not, the succeeding No, 
t Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p 39. % Ibid., p. 49, et supra. 

II Livingston's Essay on Sheep, p. 5X. § Ibid., Appendix. 



134 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



flocks, but not commonly so — their wool longish on both back and belly, 
and exceedingly dense — wool whiter within than the Rambouillets — skin 
the same rich rose-color. The ram on page 131 is a good specimen of this 
variety, though his age is not sufficient to give him the substance and com- 
pactness of an older animal, and the apparent want in these particulars is 
hightened by recent shearing.* His first fleece of well-washed wool, at 
thirteen months old, was 8 lbs. ; was of beautiful quality, and entirely 
destitute of hair. At three years old he would have sheared from 10 to 12 
lbs. of well-washed wool.t 




MERINO EWE. 



The second general class of American Merinos are smaller than the pre- 
cedino- — less hardy — wool as a general thing finer — covered with a black 
pitchy gum on its extremities — fleece about one-fourth lighter than in class 
first. 

The tJiird class, which have been bred mostly South, are still smaller and 
less hardy — and cany still finer and lighter fleeces. The fleece is desti- 
tute of external gum. The sheep and wool bear a close resemblance to 
the Saxon ; and if not actually mixed with that blood, :j: they have been 
formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. 

Class^rs^ are a larger and stronger sheep than those originally impoi'ted 
from Spain, carry much heavier fleeces, and in well selected flocks, or in- 
dividuals, the fleece is of a decidedly better quality. The ewe from my 
flock — the portrait of which is given above — sheared 7 lbs. 10 oz, of well- 
washed wool. II The fibre numbered 1. in fig. 1, in the succeeding measure- 
ments by Dr. Emmons, is from this fleece. The fleece is exceedingly even 
and entirely destitute of hair. 

For the purpose of exhibiting the comparative quality of the wool of 



* The portrait, on the whole, is strikingly accurate, but the skill of the artist does not compenBate for his 
want of experience, in animal paintine, in civin^ the anatomical details and expression of the countenance. 
The pame remark applies to the poilrait of the ewe. 

t This valuable animal died since the above portrait was painted, and prior to his second shearing. 

J I am not aware what pedigree is claimed for them. They are usually spoken of as Merinos. 

II i. £.— washed as clean as practicable in a brook, under a heavy sheet of falling water. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



135 



Ehe American, RamLouillet, and early imported Spanish Merinos, 1 copy 
he following, from the pen of Ebenezer Emmons, M. D., State Geologist, 
jin the American Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Science, of which 
ublication Dr. E. is the Editoi'. 



"'" Having given you a pretty full report of the farm and stock of Mr. Randall, embracing 
imany details also in the several branches of husbandry, I now propose adding a few words 
las an appendix to that report. I gave some intimation, when speaking of the fineness of 
^he wool of Mr. R.'s sheep, that on my return home I would i'uniish something more exact 
las a test for fineness than the naked eye. In fulfillment of this intimation, I have been en- 
gaged since I returned, in measuring the diameter of the different staples which I procured 
while at Cortlandville, and which I have compai'ed with others obtained of our mutual 
Ifriend. Luther Tucker, Esq., of the Cultivator. 

" The difterent kinds are indicated by numbers. I have prepared a scale which is equal 
to 100 millimeters ; a millimeter is equal to 0-039 of an inch. The hundredth of a millime- 
ijter,* and the fibres of wool, are all subjected to the same magnifying power of an excellent 
IChevalier's compound microscope. The comparison is both absolute and relative ; but it is 
lliighly interesting to see the perceptible difference between the different fibres of wool. The 
inicroscope also reveals other differences; some of the fibres appeared rather uneven or flat- 
jitened, and destitute of a clear and distinct pith or tube ; and, in fact, I may remaik that the 
Inicroscope is really tlie best method of testing the real quality of wool." . . . 

' Fig. 1. 




" No. 1, Mr. Randall's ; No. la, fibre of Mr. Randall's prize Merino buck ;t No. lb, fibre 
from one of Mr. Randall's fleeces ; No. 2 and 2a, fibres from Mr. Reth Adams's wool ; No. 
4, Remilles wool, Shoreham, Vt. ; No. 5, fibre of S. O. Burchard's fine wool, Shoreham ; 
No. 3, fibre of Charles L. Smith's wool, Shoreham ; No. 6, fibre from Collins's Grandee. The 
last five were taken from wool left at the Cultivator office. In all the fibres examined there 
is a gi-eat iinif )rmity in the parcels ; only slight differences, in fact, could be detected in the 
several diameters. No. 7 shows the stracfure of wool as seen under the microscope. In 
the corner is the scale of measurement. The finest fibre as magnified in this cut is equal to 
about eighteen-hundredths of an inch in diameter. 

" Anoiher inquiry equally important with the preceding came up in this place : What is 
the strength of a single fibre of wool, and is the coarser comparatively stronger than the fine? 
I set about answering those inquiries at once, and now give you the result below : 

" Mr. Randall's No. lb, on three trials, supported on an average 62 grains ; or, rather, 
broke when tried with the weight of 62 grains. 

" Mr. R.'s No. la broke with 57-1 grains. 

" The fibre from Collms's Grandee, on three trials, supported on an average 84-6 grains. 

" Mr. Smith's specimen of Shoreham, Vt., on three ti'ials, gave an average of 6.5-6 grains." 

No. 1« is the wool of my ram " Premium," which received the first prize 



' About 1-2300 of an inch. 



t Taken from the animal by Doct. Emmons. 



136 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



at the State Fair at Poughkeepsie, 1844,* and his fleece weighed 10 lbs. 
of well washed wool. 

No. 2 and 2a, (Mr. Seth Adams's wool,) were from the sheep imported 
by that gentleman. 

No. 6 was from Grandee, the best ram of Mr. CoUins's Rambouillet im- 
portatitm. 

It will be observed, first, that the American wool is the finest, and 
second, its strength is greatest in proportion to its diameter. 

It will probably be as well to bring Doct. Emmons's subsequent meas- 
urements of the wool of other individuals and varieties together at this 
place, as to scatter them through the descriptions of the several breeds. 
It will render a comparison between them more convenient. I would re- 
mark that the cuts are copied from those of Doct. Emmons, with the 
strictest fidelity.! Indeed they are ])erkctfac similes. 

Fis 2. 




" Figure 2 (scale of measurement same as in Fig. 1) exhibits the comparative diameters of 
the wool fibre of two ))remium Saxon sheep exhibited at the State Fair at Utica, 1845. A 1 
is a fibre of wool fi-om the shoulder of the 2d premium sheep (Mr. Church's) ; 2 do. from the 
flank. B 1, fibre from the shoulder of the first premium sheep (Mr. Crocker's) ; 2 do. flank. 



Fiff. 3. 





" Fig. 3, No. 1. fibre of Bakewell — about the average fineness of this kind of wool. No. 2, 
fibre from Merino ewe belonging to Col. Sherwood, 3 years old (Blakesley sheep.) No. 3 
do. Mr. Bailey's ewe. No. 4 do. Mr. Atwood's. 

Fig. 4. 




" Fig. 4. — No. 5, fibre of Mr. Ellis's ewe, fleece weighing 6 lbs. 13 oz. No. 6 do. Mr. Net- 
tletou's yearling Mermo buck. No. 7 do. a sample from the imported 5 per cent. South 
American wool, wliich is seen to be nearly as fine as the best of our flocks. No. 8 do. Col. 



* This is the only time my sheep have ever been shown at a State Fair, and I first made arrangements 
for exhibiting, in the expectation of having the privilege of comparing my sheep with the unported Kam- 
bouillets of Mr. Collins. Mr. C, however, declined my invitation to shoVF. I received the first prize on 
rams, and the first and second on ewes. 

t Executed by William Howland, of New York, whom I take pleasure in recommending to all wishing to 
obtain wood engravings, as an accurate and most obliging artist. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 137 

Sherwood's three-year-old buck, sheared 8^ lbs. of wool. No. 9 do. finest Saxon wool in 
market. 

Fig. 5.— No. 10, fine Ohio wool. No. 12, do. Saxon F'g- 5- 

of the late Mr. Grove's excellent flock. No. 13, do. 
original imported Spanish wool by Seth Adams. No. 
14, Mr. L. A. Morrell's Saxon. 




The following cut, copied from Youatt, 
exhibits a fibre of Merino wool viewed 10 IZ IS i4- 
botli as an opaque and transparent object, with a microscope manufac- 
tured by Mr. Powell, of London. 

The serrations or " beards," which constitute ^ ^ ^ p^^'^^^^^^ ^^i ^i ^^i?^^^^^^ 
the felting property of wool, are beautifully ^^^s^^^^^^^^^^S 
distinct and sharp. It was a picklock from a 

Negretti fleece, and Mr. Youatt says it is " very «?-*--»^=^==*^?-^^*:^^::'=^«--*--:^-<z^^ 
fine, being only the yjoth part of an inch in j^,^___^_.-^ ^J_^^ ^.^,i— t-iJ 
diameter." By consulting Doct. Emmons's 

preceding statements, it will be seen that the wool of my prize ram " Pre- 
mium" is only about YgVo'-^ ^'^ ^" \r\Q\\ in diameter ! This forcibly shows 
the improvement which has been made on the Merino wool of Spain in the 
United States. 

" The Merino, though the native of a warm climate, becomes readily in- 
ured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing as far north as Sweden, 
without degenerating in fleece or form. It is a patient, docile animal, bear- 
ing much confinement without injury to health, and possesses none of that 
peculiar ' voraciousness of appetite,' ascribed to it by English writers.* — 
Accurately conducted experiments have shown that it consumes " a little 
over " two pounds of hay per diem, in winter ; the Leicester consumes from 
three and a half to four ; and the common wooled American sheep would 
not probably fall short of three. The mutton of the Merino, in spite of the 
prejudice which exists on the subject, is short grained and of good flavor, 
when killed at a proper age," and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to 
to the quarter. " It is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth and 
continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep," 
and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved English Breeds ; 
" but it should be remarked in connection with this fact, that it is corres. 
pondingly slow in arriving at maturity. It does not attain its full growth 
before three years old, and the ewes in the best managed flocks, are rarely 
permitted to breed before they reach that age." 

The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-wooled sheep, 
and my experience goes to show that its lambs, when newly dropped, are 
hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high bred South- 
Down. The ewe is not so good a nurse, however, as the latter, and will not 
usually do full justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per 
cent, is about the ordinary number of lambs usually reared, though it 
often reaches one hundred per cent, in carefully managed or small 
flocks. 

" We have already adverted to the cross between the Merino and the 
native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the Merinos, they 
were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the cross was contin- 
ued until the Spanish, blood was nearly bred out." When the admixture 
took place with judiciously selected Saxons, it resulted not unfavor- 
ably for certain purposes. But unfortunately these instances of judicious 
crossing were rare. Our country was flooded by eager speculators, with 
the feeblest and least hardy Merinos of Germany. Fineness of wool during 

* Youatt, p. 149. 

s 



138 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



the period of this strange excitement, was made the only test of excellence, 
no matter how scanty its quantity, no matter how diminutive or miserable 
the carcass. Governed by such views, the holders of most of our Merino 
flocks purchased these over-delicate Saxons, and the consequence was as 
might have been foreseen — their flocks were ruined." 




HOWL ma ^^ 



SAXON RAM 



Saxons. — " In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Saxony, ob- 
tained permission from the Spanish Court to import two hundred Merinos, 
selected from the choicest flocks of Spain. They were chosen principally 
from the Escurial flock, and on their arrival in Saxony, were placed on a 
private estate belonging to the Elector, under the care of Spanish shepherds. 
So much importance was attached to the experiment, as it was then con- 
sidered, that a commission was appointed to superintend the aflairs of the 
establishment; and it was made its duty to diffuse information in relation 
to the management of the new breed ; to dispose of the sui"plus rams at 
prices which would place them within the reach of all holders of sheep ; 
and finally, by explaining the superior value of the Merinos, to induce 
the Saxon farmers to cross them with their native breeds. Popular preju- 
dice, however, was strong against them, and this was hightened by the rava- 
ges of the scab, which had been introduced with them from Spain, and 
which proved very destructive before it was finally eradicated. But when 
it became apparent that the Merino, so far from degenerating, had im- 
proved " in the quality of its wool, in Saxony, " the wise and patriotic efforts 
of the Elector began to reap their merited success, and a revolution took 
place in popular sentiment. The call for rams became so great that the 
Government resolved on a new importation, to enable them more effec- 
tually to meet it, and to improve still farther the stock already obtained. 
For this purpose an individual, considered one of the best judges of sheep 
in Saxony, was dispatched to Spain in 1777, with orders to select three hun- 
dred. For some reason, probably because he experienced difficulty in obtain- 
ing a greater number presenting all the qualifications he sought, he return- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 139 

ed with but one hundred and ten. They were from nearly all the different 
flocks of Spain, but principally the Escurial — and were considered decided- 
ly superior to the first importation. In addition to the establishment at 
Stolpen, already founded, others were now commenced at Rennersdorf, 
Lohmen, &c. ; schools were established for the education of shepherds ; 
publications were distributed by the commissioners to throw information 
on the subject before the people ; and the Crown tenants, it is said, were 
each I'equired to purchase a certain number of the sheep." 

Mr. Spooner* states that there are two distinct breeds of the Saxon Me- 
rino sheep, the first " having stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck com- 
paratively short and broad, body round. The wool grows most on the face 
and legs — the grease in the wool is almost pitchy." The other breed call- 
ed Escurial have longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head, with very 
little wool on the latter, and a finer, shorter and softer character in its 
fleece, but less in quantity. The fleece in the Escurial averages from one 
and a half to two pounds in ewes, and two to three pounds in rams and 
wethers, while in the others it is from two and a quarter to three and a 
quarter in ewes, and from four to six pounds in ram and wethers. These 
vai'ieties cannot be amalgamated successfully. 
. The preceding portrait is a favorable specimen of the Escurial Saxon, 
copied from a cut, after a drawing by Harvey, in Mr. Spooner's work. 

That the German shepherds have sacrificed the hardiness of the Merino, 
and indeed almost everything else, for fineness of staple, there can be but 
little doubt. Their method of managing the sheep and its effects are thus 
described by Mr. Carr, a large sheep-owner of Germany :t 

" They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather, 
when they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never taken to pasture until the 
dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed with a 
small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, which has not sutfei'ed from wet. 
and which is varied at each feed ; they pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any 
grain that may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good water to drink, and rock- 
salt in their cribs, are indispensables They cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it 

is quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture of short and 
not over-nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy gromid, even once or 
twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver complaint in the following spring. If tliey 
are permitted to eat wet grass, or exposed frequently to rain, they disapjjear by hundreds 
with consumption. In these countries it is found the higher bred the sheep is, especially the 
Escm-ial, the more tender !" 

Such are the common views of the sheep, and their treatment over 
Germany, Prussia, and Austria. Various statements of the methods adopt- 
ed by Baron Geisler, Graf Hunyadi, and other eminent flockmasters, will 
be found in Dr. Blight's Travels in Lower Hungary, Paget's Travels in 
Hungary and Transylvania, Jacob's Travels in Germany, &;c. 

The qualities of the Saxons as breeders and nurses, may be inferred 
from the following regulations, for the management of his flock, by Baron 
Geisler.| 

" During the lambing period, a shepherd should be constantly day and night in the cote, 
in order that he may place the lamb, a soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a 
separate pen, which has been before prepared. The ewes which have laml^ed should, 
during a week, be driven neither to water or pasture ; but low troughs of water for this pm-- 
pose are to be introduced into each partition, in order that they may easily and at all times 
quench their thirst. It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley-meal into the water, 
for by this means the quantity of the ewe's milk is much increased. When the lambs are so 
strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from their mothers, and fed 
with the best and finest oats, being suffered at first to go to them but three times a day, 
early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to continue till they can travel to 
pasture, and fully satisfy themselves." 

* Spooner, p. 57. t Quoted by Spooner, p. 58. J Ibid., p. 59. 



140 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The following history of the introduction of the Saxons into the United 
States, was compiled by me from written memoranda, and the oral state- j] 
ments of Mr. Grove, submitted to the Committee of New-York State Ag- 1 
ricultural Society,,, already alluded to, of which I was Chairman, and was J 
published in my Report, credited, of course, to Mr. Grove individually, as I 
no other member of the Committee was conversant with the facts nar- \ 
rated.* ] 

" Tlie first importation of Saxony sheep into the United States was made by Mr. Samuel i 
Henshaw, a merchant of Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of Northampton. ' 
They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, Messrs. G. & T. Searle, of Boston, import- , 
ed 77 Saxon sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretchman, a correspond- 
ent of the aljove firm, residing in Leipsic, and shipped at Bremen on board the American 
schooner Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on the passage, and I also . > 
shipped six on my own account. I am sorry to say that as many as one-third of the sheep 
purchased by Kretchman. (who shared profit and loss in the undertaking,) were not pure- 
blooded sheep. The cargo were sold at auction at Brooklyn, as ' pure-blooded electoral Sax- 
ons,' and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure and impure became irrevocably mix- 
ed. But I feel the greatest certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none but 
the pure stock — the fault lay with Kretchman. In the fall of 1824, 1 entered into an arrange- : 
ment vvidi the Messrs. Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase in connection with Kretch- , 
man, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was detained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise 
to the belief that I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the sheep had been al- 
ready bought by Kretchman. On being informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested ' 
against taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, but to no purp(jse. A 
quarrel ensned between us, and Kretchman even went so far as to engage another to take ,i 
charge of the sheep on their passage. My friends interposing, I was finally induced to take jj 
charge of them. The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on the passage. They r 
were sold at Brighton, some of them going as high as from $400 to $450. A portion of this f. 
importation consisted of gi-ade sheep, which sold as high as the pure-bloods, for the Amen- r 
can purchasers could not know the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce- ji 
ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this country and Saxony. The Ger- \\ 
man newspapers teemed with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ' Good for the Ameri- fi 
can Market ;' and these sheep, in many instances, were actually bought up for the American 
market at five, eight or ten dollars a head, when the pure-bloods could not be purchased at 
from less than $30 to $40. In 1836, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amounthig in the ag- 
gregate to 513 sheep. They were of about the same cjiaracter with their prior importations, in 
the main good, but mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year a cargo of 221 arrived, on 
German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, supercargo. A few were good sheep and of pure l)lood ; 
but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk about $3,000. Next came a cargo 
of 210 on German account; Wasmuss and Multer, owners. The whole cost of these was 
about $1,125, in Gennany. With the exception of a small number, procured to make a 
flourish on, in their advertisements of sale they were sheep having no pretensions to purity 
of blood. In 1827, the same individuals brought out another cargo. The.se were selected 
exclusively from grade flocks of low character. On the same year the Messrs. Searle made 
their last importation, consisting of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger- 
many wrote me that they were fike their other importations, a mixture of pure and imjiure 
blooded sheep. It is due, however, to the Messrs. Seale to say that, as a whole, their im- 
portations were much better than any other made into Boston. 

" I will now turn your attention to the importations made into other ports. In 1825, 13 
Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep arrived 
in New-York, per brig William, on German account. A portion of these were well descend- 
ed and valuable animals, the rest were grade sheep. In June the same year, the brig Lou- 
isa brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one-third of them had the least pre- 
tensions to purity of blood. Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account. — 
Some were diseased before they left Biemen, and I am happy to state that twenty-two died 
before their arrival in New-York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were a most cu- 
rious and motley mess of wretched animals. The next cargo imported arrived in the brig 
Maria Elizabeth, under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging to myself and 
F. Gebhard, of New- York. These sheep cost me $65 a head when landed in New-York. — 
They sold at an average of $50 a head, tlius sinking about $2,400 ! I need not say that they 
were exclusively of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know nothing of 
their quality. The next importation consisted of 184, on German account, per brig Warren. 
With a few exceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next have an importa- 
tion of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. They were commonly called the ' stop sale sheep. 

* Mr. Morrel in his American Shepherd, quotes this as a " Report " drawn and read by Mr. Grove, (one is 
lefl to infer,) before the New-York State Agricultural Society. This is doubtless an inadvertance. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 141 

They were of the most miserable character, some of them being hardly half-grade sheep. — 

The ship Phebe Ann brought 120 sheep, of which I know little ; and 60 were landed at 
! Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. Having determined to settle 
I in America, I returned to Saxony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and examining 

many flocks. I selected 11.5 from the celebrated flock of Machem, embarked on board the 
j ship Albion, and landed iii New-York June 27, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 more irom the 
j same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an excellent judge of sheep. I first drove them to 
j Shaftsbury, adjoining the town of Hosic, where I now reside. On theii' arrival they stood 

me in $70 a head, and the lambs half that sum." 

" It will be inferred from the facts above stated that there are few Sax- 
on flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality 
of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure 
which were imported together, and all sold to our breeders as pure stock." 

And independent of this, there are but exceedingly few flocks which 
have not been again crossed with the Native or Merino sheep of our coun- 
try, or both. Those who early purchased the Merino, crossed them with 
the Native ; and, when the Saxons arrived, these mongrels were bred to 
Saxon rams. This is the history of probably three-quarters of the " Sax- 
on" flocks of the United States, and among them some, as I know, among 
the most celebrated. 

As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their 
wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it is exceedingly problematical in my 
mind whether they are any worse for the admixture : when crossed only 
with the Merino, it is undoubtedly to their advantage. Though I once 
thought differently, experience has satisfied me that the American Saxon, 
with these early crosses in its pedigree, is a hardier and more easily kept 
animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. As with the Merino, 
climate, feed, and other causes, have doubtless conspired to add to their 
size and vigor ; but, after all, I have not a doubt they usually owe more 
of it to those early crosses. 

The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from 2 or 
2J- to 3 lbs. They are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requirinp- 
regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in 
cool weather from storms of all kinds ; but they are evidently hardier than 
the parent German stock. In docility and patience under confinement, 
late maturity, and longevity, they resemble the Merinos, from which they 
are descetided ; though they do not mature so early as the Merino, nor 
ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses ; their lambs smaller, fee- 
bler, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched. 
They do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume 
an amount of food correspondingly less. 

Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the 
American Merinos ; but Dr. Emmons's measurements show that this is 
not always the case, and many breeders of Saxons are now crossing with 
the Merino, in the expectation of increasing the weight of their fleeces 
without deteriorating its quality.* Though I am in possession of wool 
from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio, which compares well with the 
higher grades of German wool,t and though there are doubtless other 
flocks of equal quality in the country, | our Saxon wool, as a whole, falls 
considerably below that of Germany ; and I never have seen a single lock 
of the American equaling some samples, given me by a friend recently 

* Mr. Lawrence believes this practicable, and Mr. Morrel and various other Saxon breeders have for 
some time bred in this way. 

t Fully equaling, and, I think, better than some German wool I recently savr, which, all expenses in- 
cluded, stood the purchaser in $1 60 per pound ! 

X Dr. Emmons stated, subsequently to his measurements above, that he had received wool from the 
flock of Dr. Beeluuan, considerably finer than the Sason wool figured. 



142 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



from Europe, which came from Styria, south of Vienna, in Austria. The 
inferiority of the American to the German wool is not due to climate or 
other natural causes, nor is it owing to a want of skill on the part of our 
breeders. It is owing to the fact that but a very few of our manufactur- 
ers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would 
render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which pro- 
duce this exquisite quality of wool. No American breeder thinks of hous- 
ing his sheep from the summer rains and dew, or observing any of the liot- 
house i-egulations — at least in the summer — of Graf Hunyadi, or Baron 
Geisler ! If he did, his wool would not probably pay half of its first cost. 
When our manufacturers wish to find these wools in the home market, 
they must learn to ^(7?/ for them in the hotne market as liberally as they 
are compelled to to obtain them in foreign ones ! 




THE NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL. 

The portrait above is copied from one of a sheep of this variety, belong- 
ing to the Duke of Bedford, given in Mr. Youatt's work on Sheep. 

" The unimproved Leicester was a ' large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed ' 
of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It is described also 
as having been ' a slow feeder, and its flesh coarse-grained, and with little 
flavor.' The breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of 
fleece. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, was the first who adopt- 
ed a system more in accordance with the true principles of breeding. He 
selected from the flocks about him those sheep ' whose shape possessed 
the peculiarities which he considered would produce the largest propor- 
tion of valuable meat, and offal,' and having observed that animals of me- 
dium size possess a greater aptitude to take on flesh, and consume less 
food than those which are larger, and that prime fattening qualities are 
rarely foiuid in sheep carrying a great weight of wool, he gave the prefer- 
ence to those of smaller size, and was satisfied with lighter fleeces." To 
reach the wonderful results obtained by Mr. Bakewell, it was supposed 
that he resorted to a cross with some other varieties, but it is believed by 
some that he owed his success only to a judicious principle of selection, 
and a steady adherence to certain principles of breeding. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 143 

• It is exceedingly unfortunate that this eminent breeder has left us so 
much in the dark in relation to those principles of breeding, adopted by 
him, which led to such signal success in his efforts to improve both the 
cattle and sheep of the region in England in which he resided. All of his 
measures were veiled in impenetrable secrecy even from his most intimate 
friends, and he died without voluntarily throwing the least light on the 
subject. The whole inception and management of his famous " Dishley 
Society"* betrays selfishness the most intense, and, in plain English, mean- 
ness the most unalloyed. Should a man claiming to be a gentleman, in 
this country, make valuable discoveries in breeding, or in any other de- 
partment of husbandry, and closely conceal them from the public, his con- 
duct would meet with universal reprehension and contempt ;t yet the thing 
seems to be considered a matter of course, or is at least passed over with- 
out censure, in Youatt, Spooner, Bischoff', and a host of earlier writers, 
all of whom laud Mr. Bakewell to the echo ! 

" The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than 
the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser 
varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, &c. Where there is a sufiiciency of feed, 
the New Leicester is unrivaled for its fattening properties, but it will not 
bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its 
food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its ap- 
propriate situation, on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands 
of England, it possesses unrivaled earliness of maturity ; and its mutton, 
when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and compara- 
tively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it 
so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally 
feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off 
in the succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty 
to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is 
long — averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches ; and the fleece 
of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse quality, 
and little used in the manufacture of cloths, on account of its length, and 
that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater or less extent, to 
all the English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and 
is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, &c. 

" The high bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became shy breed- 
ers and poor nurses, but crosses subsequently adopted " have, to some ex- 
tent, obviated these defects. So far as my experience has extended in this 
country, however, the lambs are not very hardy, and require considerable 
attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moder- 
ately cold or stormy. Neither can the grown sheep be considered, in my 
opinion, very hardy. They are much affected by sudden changes in the 
weather, and a sudden change to cold is pretty sure to be registered on 
their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or ' snuffles.' 

"In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, 
the meat of this variety is in very great demand ; and the consequent re- 
turn which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to 
make, renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are re- 
corded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these ani- 

* For the Regularions of this Society, see Youatf, p. 317. 

t Of course I do not include in this categoi-y those nameless venders of recipes for killing Canada This- 
tles, rate, &c. &c. ; and men who spend their time and property in inventing improved implements, etc., 
are entitled to the pay otfered by the Patent laws. But, among our agriculturists of standing who has ever 
known of a single instance of a valuable discovery in the operations of husbandry being concealed or with- 
held fi-om the public? Who has known a breeder of rank wheedle a partner out of one-half of a valuable 
bull, and then refuse the quondam partner the services of that bull at any price, lest he should prove a 
dangerous rival in breeding? Yet, what English writer has expressed any contempt for such meanness? 
These things would not " go down" among us " rfpudiators" ! 



144 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

mals, and Mr. Bakewell's celelnated buck " Two Pounder" was let for 
the enormous price of four hundred guineas for a single season! The 
New Leicester has spread into all parts of the British Dominions, and 
been imported into the other countries of Europe and the United States. 
They were first introduced into our own country by the late Christopher 
Dunn, Esq., of Albany, about twenty-five years since.* Subsequent import- 
ations have been made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other 
gentlemen." 

It is no more than justice to say that this breed has never proved a fa- 
vorite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold winters, 
but more especially our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult 
to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester delights — the 
general want of green feed in the winter, robs it of its early maturity, and 
even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too 
fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed, to suit American taste. 
Its wool is not very salable, from the much to be regretted dearth of 
worsted manufactories in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool 
constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so difficult to 
advantageously turn off" sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding 
all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinities of consid- 
erable markets, it will always probably make a profitable return. 

The following description of what constitutes the desirable characterist- 
ics of this breed, is from the pen of Mr. Youatt :t 

" The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering toward the muzzle, and projecting 
horizontally forward. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, 
rather longr, and directed backward. The neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds 
from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizon- 
tal line fiom the. rump to the poll. The breast broad and full ; the shoulders also broad and 
round, and no uneven or angular formation where tlie shoulders join either the neck or the 
back — particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones. — 
The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the 
leg sniall, standing wide apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of 
wool. The chest and barrel at once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch 
from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to 
make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth. The bai-rel ribbed well 
home ; no irregularity of Ime on the back or belly, but on the sides ; the carcass very grad- 
ually diminishing in width toward the mmp. The quarters long and full, and, as with the 
fore" legs, the muscles extending down to the hock ; the thighs also wide and Ml. The legs 
of a moderate length ; the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with 
a good quantity of white wool — not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer." 

The South-Down. — " This breed of sheep has existed for several centu- 
ries in England, on a range of chalky hills called the South Downs. They 
were, as recently as 1776, small in size, and of a form not superior to the 
common wooled sheep of the United States. Since that period, a course of 
judicious breeding, pursued by one man (Mr. Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex), 
has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present high degree of per- 
fection, and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign 
blood. In our remarks on this breed of sheep, it will be understood that 
we speak of the pure improved family, as the original stock, presenting, 
with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited 
sixty years since, are yet to be found in England — and as the middle 
space is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falling in value, as they 
approximate to or recede from the improved blood. 

" The South- Down is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool, 
which in point of length belongs to the middle class," has been estimated 
to rank with half-blood Merino, and was so estimated in my Report, quo- 

* Now about 35 years since. t Youatt on Sheep, p. 110. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



145 



tations from which constitute so lars^e a portion of this Letter. But both 
subsequent experience, and information derived from other sources, have 
convinced me of the erroneousness of this opinion. South-Down wool is 













SOUTH-DOWN RAM. 



essentially different from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in 
some of the finest fleeces may be of the same apparent fineness with half 
or one-quarter blood Merino. 

The following cut from Youatt,* gives the microscopic appearance, 
says that gentleman, of a " prime specimen of picklock South-Down 
wool," 1 being viewed as a transparent, 
and 2 as an opaque object." The fibre 
is -g^-g^th^part of an inch in diameter. 

The cups or leaves of 2 " are roughened 
irregular, and some of the leaves have ex- 
ceedingly short angles," but they are far 
sharper, more numerous and regular (the 
points which give wool its felting propeity) than in ordinary South-Down 
wool. In the latter, the cups are rounded and have a " rhomboidal " in- 
stead of that sharp and "hooked" character which distinguishes the Me- 
rino and Saxon. 

South-Down wool is deficient in felting properties. It makes a " furzy, 
hairy " cloth, and is no longer used in England, unless largely admixed 
with foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths. 

The following testimony was given by some of the most eminent manu- 
facturers, wool-factors, staplers, and merchants of England, before the 
Committee of the House of Lords in 1828, several times previously al- 
luded to : t 




* Youatt, p. 936. 



t See BischofiF, vol. ii. pp. 145 to 155. 

T 



146 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ' 

Mr. Charles Bull, wool agent, Lewes. — " Formerly it [South-Down wool] was used for ■» 
clothing purposes ; now it is impossible to sell it ibr that manufacture ; . . . . it is used for ij 
baizes and flannels in a very large way." _ I 

Mr. William Cunnington, wool-stapler, Wiltshire. — " The public will not weai* the 
South-Down cloths, they are so very coarse." ^ 

Mr. .Fames Fison, wool dealer, Thetford. — "There has been deterioration in the quality i 
of (8outh-Down) wool ; the general weight of the fleece 20 years ago was 2 pounds to 2|, ' 
and it is now 3 pounds to 3.^, our wool used to be made into cloths, and returned into Nor- 
folk, and used by myself and the agriculturists. We do not get the same cloth now ; neither 
myself nor the farmer would wear it, because of the deterioration of quality." i 

Mr. James Hubbard, wool agent, Leeds. — South-Down wool is not "now employed for i 
the purpose of making cloth ; it has been forced down two or three steps in the scale of wool, 

and is now used lor flannels and baize The w^ool gets more frothy and open, and in 

manufacturing it does not lelt and improve so well ; it works more flannely." .... ■ 

Mr. John Brooke, manufacturer, Rowley. — " Manufacture principally blue cloths from 78. 

to 24s. and 2.58. per yard, and also naiTow cloths Had the Duke of Norfolk's wool, Mr. 

Ellman, junior's, clip from 1817 and 1822, and Mr. EUman, senior's, from 1817 to 1821 

Kept to English wool longer than any house in the neighborhood Ceased to manufac- 
ture it entirely in 1823 or 1824, .... found our neighbors were sending out better cloths 
than we were, not only at the same price, but better manufactured cloths, and we lost our cus- ' 
tomers." ! 

Mr. Benjamin Gott, merchant and manufacturer, Leeds. — " I foiTnerly used 1-50 packs I 
of English wool weekly ; the disuse of English wool was gradual, commencing about the 
year 1819, continuing to 1823 and 1824, about which time I began to manufacture exclu- 
sively from foreign wool. The disuse of English wool arose from the quality and the ad- ' 
vantage of using foreign wool compared with our own. 1 could not now make an article 
which would be merchantable at all for the foreign market, (that remark applies equally to (j 
the home trade,) in certain descriptions of cloth, except of foreign wool." . . . These wools j, 
(the domestic and foreign,) " have different properties." i! 

Mr. ^VILL1AM Ireland, Blackwell Hall factor, London. — " We have been using English | 
wool for second and livery cloths, but recently they have been so very much lowei-ed in \ 
quality we have not been able to make use of them at all, and have been obliged to make (! 
use of low German and low Spanish wools for that purpose." j: 

Mr. J. Sutcliffe, wool-stapler, Huddersfield. — " South-Down wool was formerly ap- ' 
plied for making ck)th for home consumption regularly, lor the clothing of servants, Szc. It :1 
was also used for army clothing. It is now no longer used for those purposes. It makes a i 
furzy, soft, hairy piece ; it has not that fastness in it that foreign wool has." ; 

Many other individuals testify to the same effect, and the extremely low 
character of South-Down wool for carding purposes ma^ be regarded as 
definitely settled. But as it has deteriorated it has increased in length of 
staple in England, and to such an extent that improved machinery enables 
it to be used as a combing wool — for the manufacture of worsteds. Where ' 
this has taken place it is quite as profitable, in England, as when it was 
finer and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for combine- 
wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, perhaps thi 
would not be the case. And it may be problematical whether the proper 
combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this coun- 
try, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly 
given the wool its increased length in England.* 

The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is 3 lbs. ; on rich 
lowlands a little more. Mr. John Ellman, Jr., testified before the Com- . 
mittee of the House of Lords that he was then " keeping his sheep better 
than formerly — fattening them, which rendered the fleece heavier — that 
they then averaged about 3 lbs. of wool."t " But the Down is cultivated 
more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all 
other" (from sheep of good size) " in the English markets. Its early maturity 
and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this 
purpose. The Down is turned oft' at two years old, and its weight at that 
age is, in England, fi-om 80 to 100 lbs. High fed wethers have reached 

* Nearly or quite every indivirlual wlio tesfifies to the deterioration and increased length of the South- 
Down woiil before the Lord's Committee, assign this as the cause of the chaiige. 
t BischoU", vol. ii., p. 1J7. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



147 



from 32 to even 40 lbs. a quarter! Notwithstanding its weight, the 
'Down has, in the language of Mr. Youatt, a patience of occasional short 
{keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This 
'gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicester, Lincolns, &c., as 
j a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing shoit and scanty 
'herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though in common with the other Eng- 
lish varieties much subject to the catarrh or "snuffles," and no sheep bet- 
1 ter withstands our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and 
I good nursers. The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and though an 
industrious feeder, exhibiting little disposition to rove." Like the Leices- 
t ter, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to 
decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with short 
and middle wooled breeds than the Leicester. " A sheep possessing such 
qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of 
markets. They have been introduced into every part of the British Do- 
minions, and imported into various other countries. The Emperor of 
Russia paid Mr. Ellman three hundred guineas for two rams, and in 1800 
* a I'am belonging to the Duke of Bedford, was let for one season at eighty 
guineas, two others at forty guineas each, and four more at twenty-eight 
guineas each.' These valuable sheep were introduced into the United 
States a few years since by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia, and a small 
number was imported by one of the members of this Committee in 1834. 
The last were from the flock of Mr. Ellman, at a cost of $60 ahead. Sev- 
eral other importations have since taken place." 

The ram and ewe, the portraits of which are given, are the descendants 
of the importation of Francis Rotch, Esq., alluded to in the preceding 
paragraph. They are most spirited likenesses, and were kindly furnished 
me by that gentleman, to accompany this Letter. They are exceedingly 




SOUTH-DOWN EWE. 



characteristic of the Ellman stock. Not so large as the later importations 
of Mr. Rotch from the celebrated flock of Mr. Webb, they are, in the 



. ■» 



148 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



opinion of that gentleman, as well as in my owTi, a more beautifully 
formed and not less profitable animal. For compactness — great weight in 
a small compass — they are perhaps uniivaled. 

The following is the description of the perfect South-Down by Mr. Ell- 
man, the founder of the improved breed : 

" The head small and hornless ; tlie face speckled or jrray and neither too long nor too 
short ; the li2)s tliin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow ; the under jaw 
or chaji fine ana thin ; the ears tolerably wide and well covered with wool, and the fore- 
head also, cUid the whole space betrween the ears wel] protected by it, as a defence against 
the flv. _ 

" The eye full and bright but not prominent. The orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone 
not too projecting, that it may not ffirm a fatal obstacle in lambing. 

" Tlie neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoul- 
ders, where it shnidd be broad and high and straight in its whole couise above and below. 
The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting foi-wai'd between the fore-legs, indicating a 
good constitution and a disj)osition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should 
be on a level with the back, and not too wide above: they should bow outward from the 
t<ip to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it. 

" The ribs coming out horizontally from the spme, and extending far backward, and the 
last rib projecting more than others, the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of 
the tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the ramp broad and the tail set on high, and nearly on 
a level with the spine. The hips wide ; the space between them and the last rib on ei- 
ther side as naiTovv as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circulai- fonn like a 
ban-el. 

" The belly as straight as the back. 

" The legs neither too long nor too short ; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot; 
not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the hock 
having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being 
particularly fiill, the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a sjseckled or 
dark color. 

The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the 
knee and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiry projecting 
fibres." 







f - 




NOWLANa 

THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. 



The nbove cut is copied from one in Mr. Spooner's work on Sheep — 
the original drawing l)eing by Harvey. 

Tlie Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 149 

coarse, long-legged, flat-ribhed variety, light in the fore-quarter — shearing 
a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were hardy, prolific breeders 
and capital nurses. They were deficient in early maturity, and did not 
possess feeding properties equaling those of the Down or New Leicester. 
To a cross with the latter variety we owe the modern or improved Cots- 
wold. Having had no personal experience with the breed,* I prefer 
quoting the descriptions of the later standard English writers, to the task 
of compilation. 
, The following is from Spooner :t 

" The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes 
are veiy prolific and good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, and fatted 
in the valleys, of the Severn and the Thames ; but with the inclosure of the Cotswold 
Hills and the improvement of their cultivation they have been reared and fatted in the 
same distiict. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which 
their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses considerably im- 
proved, and their maturity rendered eai-lier. The wethers are now sometimes i'attened 
at 14 months old, when they weigh fi-om 15 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years 
old increase to 20 lbs. or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though 
rather coarse, 6 to 8 inches in length, and fiom 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. per fleece. The superior 
hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common 
treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, have 
rendered them in many places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, 
of late years, more attention to theii- selection and general treatment, under which man- 
agement still farther improvement appears very probable. They have also been used in 
crossing other breeds, and, as before noticed, have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. 
It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the tenn New or Improved Oxfordshire 
Sheep, are so frequently the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled 
sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the Kingdom. The quality 
of the mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, 
with a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore, regard this breed as one 
of established reputation, and extending itself throughout every district of the Kingdom." 

Of the method of crossing between the Cotswolds and Leicester, Mr. 
Youatt remarks 4 

" The degi-ee to which the cross may be can-ied must depend upon the nature of the old 
stock, and on the situation and clicuacter of the fami. In exposed situations, and somewhat 
scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on 
land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the Leicester. Another 
circumstance that will guide the farmer is the object that he principally has in view. If he 
expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he wiU look to the primitive Cotswolds ; 
if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely." 

Cotswold sheep of good quality have been imported into the United 
States by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, of Albany, and are now bred by 
the latter gentleman. I believe there were several eai'lier importations — 
but of their dates or particulars I am not advised. 

The Cheviot Sheep. — Sheep of this breed have been imported into my 
immediate neighborhood, and were subject to my frequent inspection for two 
or three years. They had the appearance of small Leicesters, but were con- 
siderably inferior in correctness of proportions to high-bred animals of that 
variety. They perhaps more resemble a cross between the Leicester and 
the old " native " or common breed of the United States. Their fleeces were 
too coarse to furnish a good carding wool — too short for a good combing one. 
Mixed with a smaller lot of better wool, their this year's clip sold for 29 
cents per pound, while my heavier Merino fleeces sold for 42 cents per 
pound. They attracted no notice, and might at any time have been 
bought of their owner for the price of common sheep of the same weight. 
I believe the flock was broken up and sold to butchers and others this 
spring, after shearing. They were certainly inferior to the description of 
the breed by Sir John Sinclair, even in 1792, quoted by Mr. Youatt, || and 

* Wiih everv breed previouslv described, I have had ample personal eKperience. I have merely seen 
Cotswold flocks. t Q. v., p. 99. J Q. v., p. 340. || Q. v., pp. 285, 280. 



150 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



had all the defects attributed to the original stock by Cully* They mifht 
not, however, have been favorable specimens of the breed. 

On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot Hills, in the extreme North of Eng- 
land, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting 




CHEVIOT EWE. 



cold and feeding on coarse heathery herbage. A cross with the Leices- 
ter, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. The 
characteristics of the Leicester are quite evident in the portrait of the 
Cheviot Ewe, above, copied from Mr. Youatt. 

Professor Low thus speaks of the result of this cross : 

" The Cheviot breed amalgamates with the Leicester, and a system of breeding has been 
extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent. The rams employed are 
ot the pure Leicester breed, and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tenden- 
cy to fatten, to the native Cheviot. . . . The benefit, however, may be said to end with the 
first cross, and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure Leicester 
in form and fattening properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. 

Of the improved Cheviot Mr. Spooner says : 

" This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and in 
many instances supplanted the Black-faced breed ; but the change, though in many cases ad- 
vantageous, has in some instances been otherwise, the latter being somewhat hardier, and 
more capable of subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are, however, a hardy race, well 
suited for their native pastures, bearing with comparative impunity the storms of winter, 
and thriving well on poor keep. Though less hardy than the black-feced sheep of Scotland, 
thev are more profitable as respects their feedijig, making more flesh on an equal quantity 
of food, and making it quicker. They have white faces and legs, open countenances, hvely 
eyes, without horns. The ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space 
between tlie ears and eyes. The carcass is long ; the back straight ; the shoulders rather 
light ; the ribs circular ; and the quarters good. The legs are small in the bone and cov- 
ered with wool, as well a.s the body, with the exception of the face. The Cheviot wether 
is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages irom V2 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter — the 
mutton being of a good quahty, though inferior to the South-Down, and of less Havor than 
the Black -faced The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is (piiet and docile, and ea- 
sily managed. The wool isjine, (?) closely covers the body, assistmg much in preserving it 

* See CuUy on Live Stock, p. 150. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 151 

from the effects of wet and cold ; the fleece averaging about 3^ lbs. Formerly the wool was 
extensively employed for making cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wools, 
it has sunk in price, and been confined to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether 
a secondary consideration." . . • 

If Mr. Spooner is not made to say that the wool is "fine" by an omis- 
sion ofquaUfying words, or some other misprint, his ideas o^ fineness must 
be singular indeed ! The South-Down wool, rejected for carding pur- 
poses, is several shades finer than the Cheviot! The latter is of about the 
quality of Leicester, the number of serrations about the same, and, says 
Mr. Youatt, speaking of the microscopic appearance of the wool, " the 
derivation of the breed (from the Leicester) is well illustrated by the 
formation of the fibre." 

Mr. John Varley, manufacturer, of Stanningley, near Leeds, thus testi- 
fied before the Lords' Committee :* 

" I atti-ibute the low piice of Cheviot wool to deterioration ; it is deteriorated very much 
in point of hair ; it was formerly the fasliion of the day for Cheviot wool to be worn as cloth ; 

it is not the fashion now. It is not fit to make fine cloths, as it was then The wool 

is grown coarser and longer, and only fit to make low coatings and flushings." 

This is confirmed by the testimony of other witnesses before the Com- 
mittee; and Mr. Youatt on the same subject remarks,! "that the wool is 
inferior to the South-Down." 

Broad-tailed Asiatic and African Sheep. — I allude to the Broad- 
tailed race of sheep, not from any high estimate which I place upon their 
value, but because they constitute one of the breeds now existing in a 
state of purity in the United States. 

Some " Tunisian Mountain Sheep " were received by Col. Pickerino- 
when abroad, and were distributed by him in Pennsylvania.^ They are 
highly spoken of by Col. Powell as a cross with the Dishley and South- 
Down. They have, I believe, long since become extinct. 

It was Commodore Porter, I think, who, you informed me, sent home 
some of the Broad-tailed sheep of Asia, obtained from Smyrna, pure- 
blooded descendants of which yet exist in South Carolina.|| I have care- 
fully examined the specimens of wool of the full blood and the grades of 
this variety forwarded by you. No. 3, taken from the skin of a full-blood, 
is 8 inches long, pure white, consisting of coarse hairs, uneven in their 
length and diameter — the same hair of uneven diameter in different parts 
of it, and the whole intermixed for about 4 inches from the roots, with a 
fine, downy or cottony wool. No. 2, about 3|- inches long from the side 
of a three-fourths blood ram, is much evener in quality, with no hairs as 
coarse or wool as fine as in No. 3. It contains some jarr, or short, sharp- 
pointed hairs, and is a dry, and, I should judge, rather unworkable wool, 
not ^vell adapted to either carding or combing. No. 1, fi-om thigh of same 
animal, is 8 inches long, resembles No. 3, but not so great a distinction 
between the hair and the wool. No. 4, from a three-fourths blood 4-year- 
old ewe, is about 2 inches long, contains a few colored hairs, resembles 
No. 2, but is somewhat coarser. All these samples are destitute of yolk, 
and apparently come from loose, light, dry, open fleeces. They do not 
strike me as wools which could be as profitably cultivated as many others, 
for any objects or under any circumstances. 

If the object is mutton instead of wool, it seems to me that a better se- 
lection can be made, from some of the English breeds — which intermingle 

* BischofF, vol ii , p. 144. Mr. Youatt quotes the substance of the above, and fully sustains Mr. Varley's 
views. t Q. v., p. S-iS. 

+ See Essay on Various Breeds of Sheep, by Col. John Hare Powell, published in the Memoirs of the 
Boai-d of Aijriculture of the State of New- York, vol. iii., p. 377, (1826.) 

II In Letter Vth I inadvertently spoke of these as a large breed of sheep. They are not above medium 
size, or rather, may be said to be a smallish race. 



152 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



their fat and muscle in such a mannei- as to render both palatable, instead 
of depositing a greatly disproportioned share of the former in one luscious 
mass, forming an impediment to bi'eeding, and an unsightly appendao-e in 
the eye of the breeder. 

All the different varieties of the Broad-tailed and Fat-rumped sheep 
will be found described in Youatt, and I will not now consume your time 
with them. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 153 



LETTER XL 

THE MOST PROFITABLE BREED OF SHEEP FOR THE SOUTH.— PRINCIPLES 

• OF BREEDING. 

Breeds should be adapted to the circutnstances of a Country... Circumstances requiring a Mutton Sheep 
. . . Comparison between Mutton Sheep — The South-Downs, Leicesters and Cotswolds . . . How far the Feed 
MRrkets, &c., of the South demand such breeds.. .What breed of Sheep will give the greatest value of 
Wool from the feed of an acre ?.. .Comparative Consumption and Wool Product of the Mutton breeds and 
the Merino— Other Expenses — Comparative Hardiness, &c.. .A pound of fine wool can be grown as cheaply 
as a pound of coarse — worth more for market or for consumption.. .The Mutton of the Merino and its 
Crosses.. .What sub.variety of the Merino best adapted to the wants of the South ?... Review of the His- 
tory of Wool-Growing and the Wool Markets since 1824.. .Tarifts and Prices.. .Injudicious course of the 

Manufacturers — Have discouraged the growth of tine wool and encouraged that of medium and coarse 

A surplus of medium wools, and a bare or short supply of fine . . Manufacturers now in the power of fine 
wool growers.. Interest of the Manufacturers to encourage the growth of fine wools by paying better 
prices— are beginning to do so— will be compelled to continue this course. ..Will the North furnish the 
increasing demand ? — No — Reasons.. .Fine wool in every point of view more profitable than coarse for 
cultivation in the South.. .Comparison between Merinos and Saxons. . .Crosses between them.. .Points 
which constitute excellence in a Merino — proper size — per centage of wool to live, weight — shape and gen- 
eral appearance — skin — wrinkles.. .The wool — what parts it should cover — its gum — length and weight of 
fleece — evenness — style — softness — serration — manner of opening, &c.. .Principles of breeding.. .In and-in 
breeding... Crossing... English Crosses with the Merino.. .Views cf Mr. Livingston concerning the use of 
cross.bred rams — of the French breeders — of the author... Great importance of starting a flock with choice 
rams — with dift'ereut strains of blood. 

Dear Sir : No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all 
those points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable 
for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, while 
it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool ; and another which is valu- 
able for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some varieties will 
flourish only under certain conditions of feed and climate, while others 
are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the 
greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of 
verdure. 

In selecting a breed for any given locality, we are to take into consid- 
eration first, the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circum- 
stances ; and, second, the market facilities and demand. We should then 
make choice of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and un- 
der all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of marketable 
product. 

Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green 
during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of large 
carcasses. If convenient to markets where mutton finds a prompt sale 
and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which call for a mut- 
ton, as contradistinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such cir- 
cumstances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest between 
the improved English varieties — the South-Down, the New Leicester, and 
the improved Cotswold or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding betweer" 
these, minor and more specific circumstances are to be taken into account. 
If we wish to keep large numbers, the Down will herd* much better than 
the two larger breeds ; if our feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to 
be shortish during the drouths of summer, and we have not a certain sup- 
ply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Down will better endure occa- 
sional shoi-t keep : if the market calls for a choice and high-flavored mut- 
ton, the Down possesses a decided superiority. If, on the other hand, we 

* That is, remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large numbers. 

u 



154 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

wish to keep but few in the same inclosure, the large breeds will be as 
healthy as the Downs ; if the pastures be wettish or marshy, the former 
will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situa- 
tions ; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they, particularly 
the Leicester, possess an earlier maturity, and both give more meat for 
the amount of food consumed, and yield more tallow. 

The next point of comparison between the Long and Middle wooled 
families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal ob- 
ject aimed at in the culture of any of these breeds, it is, in this country, 
an important item or incident in determining their relative profitableness. 
The American Leicester* yields about 6 lbs. of long, coarse, combing wool; 
the Cotswold something more, but this perhaps counterbalanced by other 
considerations ; the Down from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. of a low quality of carding 
wool. None of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in 
the American market. Both will become more so, as manufactures of 
worsted, and of flannels and baizes, increase. The diflerence in the weight 
of fleeces between the breeds is, per se, a less important consideration than 
would first appear, and for reasons which will be given when I speak of 
the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food con- 
sumed, by sheep. 

Of the Cheviots I have tajien no notice in this connection, as they are 
obviously inferior to the preceding breeds, except in a capacity to endure 
rigorous weather, and to subsist on heathy herbage. No part of the 
South has a climate too severe for the more valuable races, and its grasses 
and other esculents, wherever found, and as far as they go, are, making 
the proper allowances for wet and dry lands, highly palatable and nutri- 
tious to all the varieties which respectively feed in such situations. 

Under the natural and artificial circumstances already alluded to, which 
surround Sheep Husbandry in many parts of England — where the fattest 
and grossest quality of mutton is consumed as almost the only animal food 
of the laboring classes — the heavy, early maturing New Leicester, and the 
still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep, seem exactly adapted to the wants 
of producer and consumer, and are of unrivaled value. To depasture 
poorer soils — sustain a folding system — and furnish the mutton which sup- 
plies the tables of the wealthy — the South-Down is an equal desideratum. 

Have we any region in our Southern States, where analogous circum- 
stances demand the introduction of similar breeds 1 The climate, so far as 
its effect on the health is concerned, is adapted to any, even the least 
hardy varieties ; but not so its effects on the verdure on which they are to 
subsist. The long, scorching summers, so utterly unlike those of England, 
leave the grass on lands stocked heavily enough for profit, entirely too 
dry and short for the heavy, sluggish Long Wools. This is particularly 
true in the tide-water zone. Mutton, too, sheeted over exteraally with 
three or four inches of solid fat,t even if it could be made acceptable to 
the slave, in lieu of his ration of bacon — a thing more than doubtful — 
would never find any considerable market off" from the plantation. So far 
as the supply of feed is concerned, the above remarks apply, though not 
equally, to the South-Down. It will live and thrive where the Long Wools 
would dwindle away, but it is a mistake to suppose that the heavy im- 



* I use the word " American " Leicester, because it is notorious that this, aa well as the Cotswold — and 
all the other heavy Knglish varieties, soon lose in the weight of their tleeces when subjected to the climate 
and the (best ordinary) system of feeding in the United States. I should except, perhaps, a few highly 
pampered animals. 

t Five and even six inches of solid fat, on the rib, is not uncommon in England. In the Cotewolds the 
fat and lean are more intermixed, and the mutton is of a better quality ; but it would be considered en. 
tiroly too lusciouB and tallowy by Americans. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 155 

proved South-Down will subsist, and attain its proper weight and fatness, 
on very poor or very scant herbage. The old unimproved variety would, 
like some other smallish and hardy races, obtain a living on keep as poor 
as that which grew on the lightest and thinnest soils of Sussex. Moulded 
by the hand of Ellman, and other breeders, to better fulfill the conditions 
of a mutton sheep, in size and other particulars, they demand that in- 
creased supply of food which the formation of additional fat and muscle 
require. Retaining some of the properties of the parent stock, they are 
less sluggish, and bear travel better than the Long Wools ; but with them 
as with the latter, and all other animals, much or prolonged exercise in 
pursuit of food or otherwise, is unfavorable to obesity. Men, and par- 
ticularly owners, in advocating the claims of this breed and that, seem not 
unfrequently to forget that the general physical laws which control in the 
development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. 
Better organs will doubtless make a better appropriation of animal food ; 
and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular direc- 
tions — in one breed, more especially to the production of fat — in another, 
of muscle or lean meat — in another, wool. But, cceteris parihvs, large 
animals will always require more food than small ones. Animals which 
are to be can'ied to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutri- 
tious food, and they must exercise but little in order to prevent the unne- 
cessary " combustion " in the lungs, of that carbon which forms more than 
seven-tenths of their fat. No art of breeding can counteiTail these estab- 
lished laws of Nature. 

Again, there are no facilities in the South for marketing large quantities 
of mutton — of a tithe of that which would be annually fitted for the sham- 
bles, were Sheep Husbandry introduced to anything like the extent I have 
recommended, and with the mutton breeds of sheep. With few cities and 
large villages — with a sparse population — with an agricultural population 
the greatest drawback on whose pecuniary prosperity is their inability to 
market their own surplus edibles — not a particle of rational doubt can ex- 
ist on this point. True, I have expressed the opinion that, both as a mat- 
ter of healthfulness and economy, mutton should be substituted for a moi- 
ety of the bacon used on the plantation ; but with such a change, in a 
country so exclusively agricultural, each landholder would raise his own 
supply, and thus no market be created. It may then be regarded as a set- 
tled point that the production ©f wool is the primary, the great object of 
Southern Sheep Husbandry. 

In instituting a compaiison between breeds of sheep for wool-growino- 
purposes, I will, in the outset, lay down the obviously incontrovertible 
proposition that the question is not what variety will shear the heaviest or 
even the most valuable fleeces, irrespective of the cost of production. — 
Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, to fairly 
test the profits of an animal. If a large sheep consume twice as much food 
as a small one, and give but once and a half as much wool, it is obviously 
more profitable, other things being equal, to keep two of the smaller sheep. 
The true question then is, with the same expense in other particulars, From, 
what breed, will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of 
wool ? 

Let us fii'st proceed to ascertain the comparative amount of food con- 
sumed by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments 
which show that breed, in itself considered, has any particular influence on 
the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, hliat the con- 
sumption is in proportion to the live weight of the (grown) animal. Of 
course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application, but its gen- 



156 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

eral soundness has been satisfactoi'ily established. Spooner states that 
grown sheep take up 3^ per cent, of their weight in what is equivalent to 
dry hay per day, to keep in store condition. Veit places the consumption 
at 2j per cent. My experience would incline me to place it about midway 
between the two. But whatever the precise amount of the consumption, 
if it is proportioned to the weight, it follows that if an acre is capable of 
sustaining three Merinos weighing 100 lbs. each, it will sustain but two 
Leicesters weighing 150 lbs. each, and two and two -fifths South-Downs 
weighing 125 lbs. each. Mei'inos of this weight often shear 5 lbs. per 
fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an acre, then, would give 
15 lbs. of Merino wool, and but 12 lbs. of Leicester, and but 9f lbs. of 
South-Down (estimating the latter as high as 4 lbs. to the fleece) ! Even 
the finest and lightest fleeced sheep ordinarily known as Merinos, average 
about 4 lbs. to the fleece, so that the feed of an acre would produce as 
much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of Merino, as it 
would of New Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down ! The 
former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent, more per pound 
than either of the latter ! Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, 
as I have, in the preceding estimate, placed the live-weight of the English 
breeds low, and that of the Merino high. The live-weight of the four- 
pound fine-fleeced Merino does not exceed 90 lbs. It ranges from 80 to 
90 lbs., so that 300 lbs. of live-weight would give a still greater product 
of wool to the acre.* I consider it perfectly safe to say that the herbage 
of an acre will uniformly give nearly douhle the value of Merino, that it will 
of any of the English Long or Middle wools. 

The important question now remains, What are the other relative ex- 
penses of these breeds ] I speak from experience wherf I say that the 
Leicesterf is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino — indeed, it is 
my firm conviction that it is less hardy, under the most favorable circum- 
stances. It is more subject to colds, and I think its constitution breaks up 
more readily under disease. The lambs are more liable to perish from ex- 
posure to cold, when newly dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances — 
herded in large flocks, pinched for feed, or subjected to long journeys — 
its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from the eflects of such draw- 
backs, do not compare with those of the Merino. The high-bred South- 
Down, though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, 
is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal. In this respect 
I consider it just about on a par with the Merino. I do not think, how- 
ever, it will bear as hard stocking as the latter, without a rapid diminution 
in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are to be taken 
into account in determining the expenses — and I think they should be — 
the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as well 
for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The South-Down ewe not only 
frequently yeans twin lambs, as do both the Merino and Leicester, but she 
possesses, unlike the lattei-, nursing properties to do justice by them. But 
this advantage is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the 
Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in 
amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and in general vigor, at about 5 years 
old ; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in a sheep kept for wool- 
growing purposes. This early decay would require earlier and more rapid 
slaughter or sale than would always be economically convenient, or even 
possible, in a region situated in all respects like the South. It is well, on 



* It is undprstond that rU of these lire-weights refer to ettes in fair ordinary, or what is called etore 
condition, 
t I speak of fuUblood Leicestera. Some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure bred sheep. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 157 

properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the Merino wether at four 
or five years old, to make room for the breeding stock ; but he will not 
particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece, for 
several years longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, 
and are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they exhibit 
no greater marks of age than do the Down and Leicester at Jive or six. — 
I have known instances of Merino ewes breeding uniformly until 15 years 
old! The Improved Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester; 
but I have said less of this variety, throughout this entire Letter, as from 
their great size* and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, 
and the other necessaiy incidents connected with the breeding of so large 
animals, the idea of their being introduced as a wool-growing sheep any- 
where, and particularly on lands grassed like those of the South, is, in my 
judgment, utterly preposterous. There is one advantage which all the 
coarse races of sheep have over the Merino. Either because their hoofs 
do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Meri- 
no, and thus hold dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot, the coai'se 
races are less subject to the visitations of the hoof-ail, and, when contract- 
ed, it spreads with less violence and malignity among them. Taking all 
the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each race, 
and all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each fairly 
into account, I am fully convinced that the expenses, other than those of 
feed, are not smaller per cajnta, or even in the number required to stock 
an acre, in either of the English breeds above referred to, than in the Me- 
rino. Nor should I be disposed to concede even equality, in these respects, 
to either of those English breeds, excepting the South-Down. 

You write me. Sir, that many of the South Carolina planters are under 
the impression that coarse wools will be most profitably grown by them, 
first, because there is a greater deficit in the supply, and they ai^e better 
protected from foreign competition ; and, secondly, because they furnish 
the raw material for so great a portion of the woolens consumed in the 
South. Each of these premises is true, but are the conclusions legitimate % 
Notwithstanding the greater deficit and better protection, do the coarse 
wools bear as high a price as the fine ones ? If not, they are not as profit- 
able, for I have already shown that it costs no more to raise a pound of 
coarse than a pound of fine loool. Nay, a pound of medium Merino wool 
can be raised more cheaply than a pound of the South-Down, Leicester, 
or Cotswold ! This I consider clearly established. 

Grant that the South requires a much greater proportion of coarse than 
of fine wool, for her own consumption. If a man needing iron for his own 
consumption, wrought a mine to obtain it, in which he should happen to 
find gold equally accessible and plentiful, would it be economical in him 
to neglect the more precious metal because he wanted to use the iron ] or 
should he dig the gold, obtain the iron by exchange, and pocket the differ- 
ence in value ] Would it be economical to grow surplus wool, wool for 
market, worth from 25 to 30 cents per pound, when it costs no more per 
pound to grow that worth from 40 to 45 cents % And even for the home 
want, for the uses of the plantation — for slave-cloths, &c. — fine wool is 
worth more per pound than coarse for actual wear or use ! Is this propo- 
sition new and incredible to you ? I challenge the fullest investigation of 
its truth, through the testimony of those familiar with the subject, or through 
the direct ordeal of experiment. It is true that a piece of fine broadcloth 
is not so strong, nor will it wear like a Chelmsford plain of treble thick- 

* I saw two at the late N. Y. State Fair, at Saratoga, which weighed over 300 lbs. each 1 



158 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

ness. The threads of the former are spun to extreme fineness to econo- 
mize the costly raw material. To give it that finish which is demanded 
by fashion — to give it its beautiful nap — these threads are still farther re- 
duced by "gigging" and "shearing." But spin fine wool into yarn as 
coarse as that used in Chelmsfords, and manufacture it in the same way, 
and it would make a far stronger and moi-e durable cloth. The reasons 
are obvious. Merino wool is decidedly stronger than the English coarse 
Long and Middle wools — or any other coarse wools — in proportion to its 
diameter or bulk. It felts far better, and there is therefore a greater co- 
hesion between the different fibres of the same thread, and between the 
different threads. It is also more pliable and elastic, and consequently less 
subject to "breaking" and abrasion. 

Unless the views I have advanced are singularly erroneous, it will be 
seen that, for wool-growing purposes, the Merino possesses a marked and 
decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-wooled 
sheep. As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds, but not 
so much so as it is generally reputed to be. If required to consume the 
fat and lean together, many who have never tasted Merino mutton, and 
who have an unfavorable impression of it, would, I suspect, find it more 
palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of 
the cross between the Merino and "Native" sheep would certainly be 
preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer used to the 
latter. It is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. The same is true 
of the crosses with the English varieties. These will be, hereafter, more 
particularly alluded to. Grade Merino wethers (say half-bloods) are favor- 
ites with the Northern drover and butcher. They are of good size — ex- 
traordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk* — make good mutton — tallow 
well — and their pelts, from the greater weight of wool on them, command 
an extra price. They would, in my opinion, furnish a mutton every way 
suitable for plantation consumption, and one which would be well accept- 
ed in the Southern markets. 

In speaking of the Merino in this connection, I have in all cases, unless 
it is distinctly specified to the contrary, had no reference to the Saxons — 
though they are, as it is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the 
former. 

Assuming it now as a settled point, that it is to the Merino race that the 
wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, let us now proceed 
to inquire which of the widely varying sub-varieties of this race are best 
adapted to the wants and circumstances of the South. A brief glance at 
the history of wool-growing, and of the wool markets, for the last few 
years, will form an useful preliminary inquiry, and will assist us materially 
in arriving at a correct conclusion. 

On the introduction of the Saxons, about twenty-four years since, they 
were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-wooled flocks of the 
country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos, The Tariff of 
1824 imposed a duty of 20 per cent, on wools costing above 10 cents per 
pound, gradually rising to 30 per cent., and 15 per cent, on those costing 
less than 10 cents. Foreign woolen cloths t were subject to an ad valorem 
duty of 30 per cent, until June 30th, 1825, and after that it was raised to 33^ 
per cent. The Tariff of 1828 immediately raised the duty on all wools to 40 
per cent, ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty, and 5 per cent, 
was to be annually added to the ad valorem duty, until it should reach 50 

•* On account of the ehortnePs of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds. 

t Where I upe the word " cloths " here nnd in the etatemenis of the different Tariffs which follow, yon 
will understand that I do not Include CBrpetings, blankets, worsted etuff goods, &c. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



159 



per cent, (in 1831.) The duty on woolen cloths was also raised (after June, 
1829) to 45 per cent., and that exceeding $4 the square yard to 50 per 
cent. Under the decisive encouragement offered to both the wool- 
grower and manufacturer by this Act, a great impetus was given to the 
production of the finest wools, and the Saxons everywhere rapidly su- 
perseded, or bred out by crossing, the Spanish Merinos. The latter dis- 
appeared almost entirely from New-York and New-England. In the 
fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every- 
thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. The Tariff of 1832 
imposed a 40 per cent, ad valorem and 4 cents per pound specific duty on 
wools costing over 8 cents ; and it raised the duty on all broadcloths to 50 
per cent. It made wools costing less than 8 cents per pound free of duty. 
The "Compromise" Tariff of 1833 commenced a system of progressive 
reductions until the maximum rate of duties should not exceed 20 per 
cent. The following Table will give the duties of each year, on wool 
and cloths, under this Act, estimating the ad valorem and specific duties 
on wools exceeding 8 cents, together in an average per centage :* 



TABLE 


14. 














Perct 

ad val. 


1833. 


1835. 


1837. 


1839. 


1841. 


1842. 


Wool costing less than 8 cents per pound ) 


free. 

54 
50 


free. 

50-60 
47 


free. 

47-20 
44 


free. 

43-80 
41 


free. 

40-40 
38 


free. 

30-20 
29 


20 

20 
20 


Wool costing over 8 cents per pound 

Woolen cloths 



The Tariff of 1841 struck out the 20 per cent, duty on the 8 cent wools. 
The Tariff of 1842 again imposed an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent, on 
wools costing seven cents or under, and raised it on the higher wools to 30 
per cent, ad valorem and 3 cents per pound specific duty, and on cloths to 
40 per cent, ad valorem. The Tariff of 1846 established an ad valorem 
duty of 30 per cent, on all wools, and on cloths. By referring to Table 
7, Letter V., it will be seen that the prices of wool have not been controlled 
by the amount of the protection. They reached their maximum in 1836, 
and then fell off, not again to rally, (except during the single year 1839) — 
not again to reach 40 cents — until 1844. Why was this 1 What pro- 
duced the sudden depreciation of 1837 ] The Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 
^diVe too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer. Their 
pursuits became the El Dorado of agncultural and mercantile speculators. 
Skill without capital, and capital without skill, and in some cases probably 
thirst of gain without either, rushed into these favored avocations. The 
bank inflations of the period fanned the fires of speculation, and taught 
some of the wisest commercial heads of the country to forget the provi- 
dence that had hitherto distinguished them. The natural result followed. 
In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary en- 
terprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and 
which were not based on adequate and real capital, were involved in a 
common destruction, and even the solidest and best conducted institutions 
of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly 
fell almost 50 per cent, (from 54 to 30 cents per pound.) t In 1838 it ral- 
lied a little, and in 1839 it again reached 50 cents, but it went down nearly 
to the minimum point in 1840. The grower began to be discouraged. 
He who bred the delicate Saxons, (and, as I have already said, they now 
comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country,) 

* The reduction of one-tenth of the excess over 20 per cent, took place Dec. Slat, each year, to 1841 ; then 
one-half of the residue of the excess ; and on the 30th of June, 1842, the other half of eaid residue was de- 
ducted. 

t The quality of the wools here alluded to will he found specified in a note on the second page of 
Letter V. 



160 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

was not obtaining the actual first cost per pound of his wool. He clam- 
ored loudly for an increase of duties on the foreign article, as the reduc- 
tions of the " Compromise " Act were now approaching their ultimate 
standard — 20 percent. — and he attributed the low prices to this cause: 
Saxon wool continued low, and did not pay its first cost in 1841 and 1842. 
Was this due solely to the reduction of the Tariff'? A reference to Table 
11 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign woolens was less from 
1836 up to and including 1842, than for the six preceding years ! Where 
then was the foreign competition which was driving the manufacturer to 
keep down the price of wools'? The Tariff' of 1842 raised the duty on 
wool 10 per cent, and added a specific duty of 3 cents per pound ; and it 
raised the duty on cloths from 20 to 40 per cent. The import of foreign 
woolens sunk, the succeeding year, to a lower point than it had touched 
since 1821, and in 1844 and 1845 it did not reach the average of the six 
years preceding the enactment of the Tariff* of 1842. A reference to 
Table 9 (Letter IX.) will show that the import of foreign fine wools also 
largely fell off". This coincided with the expectations of the advocates of 
a higher Tariff* but another and equally legitimate expectation entertained 
by the great body of Northern wool-growers — that they were to share in 
the benefits arising from the exclusion of foreign competition — was sig- 
nally disappointed. The Tariff of 1842 was enacted on the 30th day of 
August, and part of the clip of that year was sold under its operation. 
Wool sold that year loiocr than it had for the five preceding years, viz., for 
30 cents. The next year it advanced one penny ! General discourage- 
ment now seized upon the growers of fine wool. The market was not 
overstocked — foreign competition was light, but still theij could not sell 
their wool for its first cost ! To add to their mortification, the manufac- 
turer, by a most short-sighted policy, would scarcely make a discrimina- 
tion of 6d. per pound between Saxon wool and medium Merino and grade 
wools weighing nearly twice as much to the fleece. If the grower of me- 
dium wool got 25 cents per pound for fleeces weighing 4 lbs. — thus real- 
izing SI per fleece — the ordinary Saxon grower would get but 30 cents 
per pound for fleeces weighing 2^ lbs., and thus realize but 75 cents ! * 
When the Saxon growers found that the Tariff" of '42 brought them no 
relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. The 
example, once set, became contagious, and there was a period when it 
seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to 
this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacri- 
fice of their fixtures for rearing sheep. Others crossed with coarse-wooled 
breeds, and rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed 
with the English mutton breeds ! Some more judiciously went back to 
the parent Merino stock, but usually they selected the heaviest and 
coarsest wooled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of 
their wool. As the preceding period had been distinguished by its mania 
ioT fine wool, this was, by its mania for heavy ficeces !\ The English 
crosses, however, were speedily abandoned.^ The Merino regained his 

* And tliouch the larger, stronger eheep, bearing the medium wool, would eat more, it was far hardier, 
required lees protection and care of every kind, and would increase more rapidly — circumstances ivhich 
would far more than counterbalance its excess of consumption 

t I make no claim of havine possessed greater sagacity or foresight in these particulars than the mass of 
breeders. I began with the Merino. These I crossed with the Saxon, and I also bred the pure-blood Sax- 
ons for several years. Unsatisfied with these, I made some experiments with the English mutton breeds, 
both as pure bloods and crosses. Finding none of them equal to the Merino as a wool-producing sheep, I 
returned to the latter, and I bred for heapy fleeces until the manufacturers saw fit to make a juster discrim- 
ination in the prices paid by them for the different qualities of wool. 

1 1 mean by those who sought to improve their fine-wooled flocks by an English cross. English and all 
other coarse-wooled sheep are immensely and rapidly improved, for wool-growing purposes, by a proper 
fine-wooled cross, as 1 have aheady and shall again have occasion to mention. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 161 

supremacy, lost for nearly twenty years, and again became the popular 
favorite. It was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks 
in the new Western States, and gives its type to the sheep of those re- 
gions. 

It will be seen from the preceding facts that the supply of fine wool* 
has proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased. 
This has driven the manufacturers to make a juster discrimination in 
prices. They now realize that their own short-sighted economy has been 
all but fatal to fine wool-gi'owing in the United States. And they cannot 
but feel that in destroying this interest, they destroy themselves. Our 
manufacturers are not so miserably blind as to dream of drawing their raw 
material from foreign countries — of paying an import duty of 30 per cent, 
and then competing with the English manufacturer who pays an import duty 
not exceeding two pence per pound ! It is doubtful, in my mind, whether 
the home supply will not fall considerably short of the home demand for 
fine wooiybr this year !\ The point has been already reached where but 
a little more discouragement, or a little longer continued discouragement, 
would have banished these wools from the country ! So far, the manufac- 
tories have not felt this evil, for they have not been compelled to import. 
Neither pampered nor persecuted by the Tariff of 1846 — called for by the 
consumption of the country — with solid capital and greater experience 
and skill at their command — they are rapidly increasing, and rising on a 
solider basis than ever before. So, to sustain our manufacturing interest, 
(that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths,) it is absolutely necessary 
that the diminution of ^we wools be not only immediately arrested, but 
that the growth of them be immediately and lai'gely increased. These 
facts now first beginning to be clearly appreciated by the manufacturer — 
will deter him from resorting to his former suicidal policy. Instances have 
recently come to my knowledge of manufacturers offering to contract 
with fine-wool growers for their entire clips, for a term of years, at an ad- 
vance on pi'esent prices — prices, be it remembered, higher than they have 
been except for two years (1839 and 1844) since the overthrow of 1837. 
Should the manufacturer, however, again forget his own interest, the fine- 
wool grower has it in his power to teach it to him most effectually. In- 
stead of being discouraged and driven from the business, he has but to 
withhold his wools for a season — say for a few months, to compel the for- 
mer to import wools at a ruinous cost — stop his machinery, or pay fair 
prices at home ! I believe in no combinations to control prices. Some- 
thing far better than vague report, however, says that several of the large 
manufacturing establishments of New-England employed the sa7ne ngejits, 
last season, to buy much, if not all of their wools — and that these wools 
were subsequently divided by bidding or otherwise, among the parties to 
the transaction ! Is this denied 1 I think it will not be denied. If 
this was so, what was it but a combination to control prices ]| But whether 

* To make myself clearly iinderstooci, I will, in the remarks which follow, classify wools as follows : s«. 
perfine., the choicest quality of wool grown in the United States, and never orown here excepting in com- 
paratively small quantities ; fine, good ordinary Saxon ; good medium, the hiahest quiility of wool usually 
known in the market as Merino; medium, ordinary Merino : ordinary, crade Merino and perhaps selected 
South-Down fleeces ; coarse, the English lontr wools. &c. This subdivision is not minute enonnh, by any 
means, to express fully the number of well-detined classes which exist in wool. A farther multiplication 
of them here, however, I have ihouaht would only tend to confusion. 

(The position has been all along tnken that the general supply was under the demand, but the deficit 
hitherto has been principally in medium and coarse wools. See Table 9, Letter IX 

J And before leaving this point, I will ask another question : Why were most of the wools of New-York 
and New-England untouched and unlocked at by the agents of the manufacturers this year, contrary to 
all preceding customs for two or three months subsequently to shearing ? These same agents tlocked in 
droves to the Western States and boucht up their entire clip immediately after shearinir, while reports 
were constantly coming back that this manufactory and that had purchased its entire supplv for a year, or 
perhaps two years ? Was this because the Eastern growers demanded exorbitant prices ? Was it because 
anything like an approach lo a supply of fine wools could be found in the West 1 Or was it the result of a 

A. 



162 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

so or not, when we compare the profits which have inured to the growers 
and manufacturers of fine wool for the last few years, it behooves the for- 
mer both to speak and act decidedly. Their interests have been sacrificed 
long enough ! But it is to be hoped that the grower of these wools will 
not be hereafter driven to the alternative of either suffering himself, or of 
defending himself by retaliatory measures. Some few of the manufac- 
turers have always, I believe, taken a high and liberal course. Enough 
others, as already remarked, now see the necessity of such liberality to 
prevent any combined or general effort to depress prices. 

Will the North again turn its attention to the growth of superfine and 
fine wools — again supply the demand, and keep up with it as it increases ? 
Not unless stimulated by the inducement of extraordinary profits — not, 
certainly, against the competition of the South. The climate north of 41°, 
or, beyond all dispute, north of 42°, is too severe for any variety of sheep 
commonly knoxvn, which bear either of these classes of wools. In fact, the 
only such variety, in anything like general use, is the Saxon ; and this is 
a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our Northern 
winters, without good shelter, good and regularly administered food, and 
careful and skillful management in all other particulars. "When the season 
is a little more than usually backward, so that grass does not start prior to 
the lambing season, it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes — 
the young ewes will in many instances disown their lambs, or, if they own 
them, not have a drop of milk for them ; and if in such a crisis, as it often 
happens, a north-east or north-west storm comes driving down, bearing 
snow or sleet on its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temper- 
ature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from perish- 
ing.* And it will not do to defer the time of having them dropped to es- 
cape these evils, or they will not attain size and strength enough to pass 
safely through their first winter.f A few large sheepholders, whose farms, 
buildings, etc., have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing 
of these sheep, may continue to grow fine wool until driven from it hy the 
competition of the South ; but many of these have recently adopted a 
Merino cross. The ordinary farmers, the small sheepholders, who, in the 
aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of our Northern wools, have im- 
bibed a deep-seated aversion — nay, a positive disgust — against the Saxon 
sheep. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection, 
and they are entirely unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on 
them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with 
this class of farmers, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. But, 
above all, they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care 
than their cattle. The strong, compact, medium-wooled Merino — or, per- 
haps still more generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the 
wool which I have classified as ordinary — will be the general favorites. — 
The same reasons will weigh still more strongly in the Noith-west, where, 
as I have shown, the climate is a still worse one for delicate sheep. All 
these causes will tend to swell the amount of medium, ordinary and coarse 



concerted movement to bring the Eastern grower into taking last year's jirices 7 It actually did so, in a 
multitude of instances — or, he was contented to receive the slightest advance on them ! This will be found 
ti-ue of nearly all who sold soon after the market opened in the East. If not the result of a concerted and 
combined tnovemeni, \\\e fteni^al desertion of the Eastern and resort to the Western market by the manu- 
facturers was a tiumt singular coincidence ! These manufacturers are now/am to purchase Eastern wools 
Bt a ronsidrrable advance from the prices of 1846— and, as already hinted, it is highly problematical, in my 
mind, whether they will not lie compelled to import at a still higher advance, to eke out a deficiency ! It is 
to be hoped that this will be the last Act in the drama of folly and suicide played by our manufacturers. 

* Not even in close hams, and with constant attendance. 

t North of latitude 42°, it is necessary, as a general rule, that lamhs be dropped in the first half of May, to 
sivrt them this requitiite size and streiieth Occnsional cold storms come nearly every season up to that 
period, and not unfrequently up to the first of .lune. Mr. Grove was a decided advocate of early lambs. — 
He used to say that " it waa belter to lose two of them in the spring than one in the faU." 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 163 

wools. Though the reaction has been but recent, the market demand for 
medium and ordinary wools is now better supplied — nearer being glutted, 
so far as I am enabled to judge — than that for fine and superfine. And 
should the market become glutted with either or both, it is important to 
remember that the latter will be far more profitable for export than the 
former. 

Every consideration, then, in my judgment, points to wools ranging from 
good medium upward, instead of the lower classes, as the most profitable 
staples for cultivation in the South. The only question which now arises 
on this point is, from which variety, the Saxon or Merino, shall the South 
attempt to cultivate these wools 1 

It is generally supposed, and as a general thing it is true, that the Me- 
rino bears no better wool than that which I have classified as good medi- 
um. But the measurements of Dr. Emmons (given in Letter X.) show, 
by the infallible testimony of the microscope, that heavy-fleeced Merinos 
sometimes equal — nay, surpass Saxons, in fineness. The fact is more de- 
cisive, as the Saxon fibres there measured came not only from the most 
celebrated flocks — from the prize sheep at State Fail's — but it also came 
fi'om samples, in most instances, given by the oivners for puhlic exhibition. 
I do not claim that Merinos like these are common. They are rather to 
be regarded in the light of those prodigies of excellence which occasion- 
ally appear, but which it is diflScult to reproduce with anything like uni- 
formity. Nor are lesser fleeced Merinos, bearing wool equal to ordinary 
Saxon, very common. During the Jine wool mania, all, who sought fine 
wool, bred the Saxon sheep, or crossed with it ; and the few who stood 
out, and clung to the Merino, generally aimed to distinguish it as widely 
as possible from the former, by increasing the weight of its fleece, to the 
disregard of its fineness. This, too, was the general disposition during the 
heavy -fleeced mania. Of consequence, but very few of our breeders have 
ever, or until recently, sought a high degree of fineness in fleece in breed- 
ing the Merino. Recent experience has satisfied me that this is rapidly 
attainable. Mr. Lawrence, in a quotation already made by me (in Letter 
L), says : " I believe a breed may be reared which will give four pounds 
of exquisitely fine wool to the fleece." I know by multiphed experiments 
that once interbreeding between an ewe bearing good medium wool (the 
fleece weighing, say, from 4^ lbs. to 5 lbs.), with a Merino ram of sufli- 
ciently high quality, will produce wool in the offspring equaling ordinary 
Saxon, and a fleece averaging 4 lbs., with none of its weight made up of 
gum. The result of tivo such interbreedings will bring the progeny of a 
heavy-fleeced medium ewe (provided her fleece is properly even) to the 
same point. The four-pound fine-fleeced Mei'ino would be a far more 
profitable animal than the Saxon, other things being equal. But other 
things are not equal. The former is every way a hardier animal, and a 
better nurse. It is about 20 lbs. heavier, and therefore consumes more 
feed ; but I consider this additional expense more than counterbalanced 
by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. If 
required to keep the number good, and give the proper attention to the 
rearing of lambs, I would sooner engage to keep, at the same price, 
one thousand such Merinos for a year, than to keep the same number of 
Saxons. 

It would be practicable, doubtless, to increase the Saxon's fleece to 4 
lbs. ; but any one, familiar with such experiments, knows that it is far easier 
to increase fineness of wool, by diminishing weight of fleece and carcass a 
little, than it is to increase weight of fleece and carcass without lowering 
the quality of the wool. And there is this additional objection to the latter 



164 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

system of breeding, so far as the Saxon is concerned. The breeder is not 
only called upon to increase the weight of its fleece and carcass, but to en- 
graft on it hardiness of constitution, nursing properties, etc., which by no 
means follow, as a matter of course, its improvement in the former partic- 
ulars. These, and particularly the latter, could only be attained, so as to 
be transmissible with a proper degree of certainty from parents to offspring, 
by years of breeding, accompanied by a rigorous course of selection. If, 
therefore, you were called upon loform a variety just suited to your wants, 
the Merino would present the most ductile and the safest matenals. But 
the Southern agiiculturist, just entering upon sheep-rearing, would not be 
prepared to conduct nice experiments in breeding. He wants a breed or 
variety already prepared to his hand. And for the same reasons, notwith- 
standing the fineness of his climate, he wants a hardy breed — one that de- 
mands no extra skill, no great experience, for its management. Merinos 
reaching or closely approaching the standard above specified are now to 
be found, while there is no coi-responding variety of Saxons ; and to incur 
the risks arising from inexperience, want of preparation, &c., the superior 
hardiness of the former would, of course, render them entirely prefer- 
able. 

Some have recommended a cross between the Saxons and Merinos, as a 
cheap and ready method of obtaining a four-pound fine-fleeced sheep. A 
properly selected Saxon ram, crossed with good medium and medium- 
wooled Merino ewes, cutting from 5 lbs. to 5^ lbs. of wool, will almost uni- 
formly produce this result. And it is easier noio to get the Saxon than the 
Merino, fine enough for this purpose. Or a flock may be bred up from 
Saxon ewes and a Merino ram. The objection to both courses is the same, 
though not equal to that which exists against breeding the full-blood Sax- 
ons — viz., the production of a feeble and a poor nursing sheep. The latter 
evil, especially, clings for generations to these cross-bred animals, so far as 
my experience and observation have extended. And unless Saxons are 
selected which do not possess the characteristic faults of the variety, the 
cross-breds are inferior to pure-blood Merinos in many otJier and essential 
particulars, notwithstanding the fleece may be all that we desire. 

There is another important point where the pure-blood Merino possesses 
a marked advantage. Few Southern wool-growers will commence their 
flocks exclusively with high-bred animals of any kind. With a few of them 
to breed rams from, and to gradually grow up a full-blood flock, they will 
mainly depend upon grading up the common sheep of the country. With 
the long-legged, bare-bellied, open-wooled sheep common in the South (as 
it once was in the North'*', the Saxon makes an indifferent cross. Their 
faults run too much in the same direction, in all save the fineness of wool, 
for, however good its shape, the wool of the Saxon is comparatively short 
and open. It therefore shortens the wool of the common sheep, without 
adding much or any to its thickness, and thus the fleece remains a light 
one. Precisely all this is the reverse of what results from a cross between 
the Merino and the common sheep. The wool is but little shortened, un- 
less the staple of the common sheep was very long; it is essentially thick- 
ened ; it is made to extend over the belly ; the fleece is, therefore, greatly 
increased in weight ; the sheep is rendered more compact and " stocky," 
and it is brought nearer to the grovmd. Even the first cross, though its 
fleece is somewhat uneven, is a prime sheep for the wants of ordinary farm- 
ers, and among these it is, accordingly, a decided favorite, over the whole 
Northern States. A majority of them would, I think, give it preference 
over any other kind or variety of sheep. Two or three more proper Me- 
rino crosses raise it to the rank of a Jirst-rate wool-groioing sheep — scarcely 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 165 

inierior to the full-blood Merino in anything, save that it does not transmit 
its good qualities loith quite so much certainty to its offspring* 

Let us now proceed to inquire what are the points which constitute ex- 
cellence, or mark a departure from it, in the class of Merino sheep which 
I have attempted to show form, in every point of view, the most suitable 
variety to commence wool-growing with in the South. What should be its 
size, weight of fleece, shape, general appearance, style of wool, &c. &c. ? 

Size, within extremes, is not, per se, a matter of much consequence. — 
There should, however, be uniformity in this particular, at least through 
the same flock, not only for their good appearance, but larger sheep are 
apt, by their superior strength, to crowd away small ones from the rack or 
ti-ough. A sheep very small of its breed and family, is commonly less hardy. 
If very large, it must travel farther to fill itself ; and, therefore, this would 
be an objection to it in a breed designed to graze on short and scant pas- 
turage — for the extra exercise thus made necessary would cause it to waste 
(in the form of carbon, in the lungs) a considerable portion of the food, 
which would, under other circumstances, be converted into animal tissues. 
Very large, like very small animals, of the same species — and, I am in- 
clined to think, the former more frequently — lack the robustness, vigor of 
muscle, capacity to endure unusual and protracted exercise, or privation 
of food, or any other unfavorable deviation from ordinary habits, possessed 
by compact medium-sized animals. This rule will be found to apply among 
all domestic animals. Lastly, I am not prepared to prove, but I believe 
that, with the sa77ie breeding, the woolly, like the osseous and muscular tis- 
sues of a large Merino sheep, will not be as fine as those of a smaller one. 
I do not found this opinion, so far as wool is concerned, upon, nor do 1 
claim that it is supported by, any analogies. I state it as solely the result 
of individual observation. If it is a tendency which can be successfully re- 
sisted, I never have been fortunate enough to have a sufficient number of 
instances brought under my eye, in any one flock, to have them constitute 
anything more than sparse exceptions to what I deem a well established 
rule. I have never known a family of very large Merinos bearing anything 
better than medium wool ; and the first step to any decided improvement 
in them immediately reduces their weight, for it can only be effected by 
interbreeding with finer and smaller families. Ewes weighing from 80 lbs. 
to 90 lbs. alive, in good fair store condition, are of about the proper size, 
in my judgment, where fine wool is the object.f Rams should weigh 40 
lbs. or 50 lbs. more. Ewes of the large Merino families weigh fiom 100 
lbs. to 110 lbs. — the rams 50 lbs. more ; nor do even these equal the size 
of some of the late imported French Merinos. 

A relation analogous to the preceding one, exists between the weight of 
the fleece and its quality. This point has already been sufficiently set 
forth on another page. The opinion is there expressed that the Merino may 
be easily bred, by judicious selection of sire and dam, to bear 4 lbs. of fine 
wool, or wool equaling ordinary Saxon. I would now add that, as a gen- 
eral rule, and in large flocks, I do not believe more than this can be ob- 
tained, without a depreciation in the quality, among ewes. The ram's 
fleece should in all cases, in a very superior animal, be about double that 
of the ewe. Five per cent, of the live-weight of the carcass, with ewes, is 
the maximum weight of fine wool, which we can, in the present state of 
breeding, look for with any uniform certainty. This would give a fleece 
of 4 lbs. to 80 lbs. of live-weights As the fine-wool Merinos increase, and 
thus give a wider range and better selection of materials for nice experi- 

* The latter point will be more particularly adverted to in a subsequent part of this Letter. 
t Saxons weigh about 20 lbs. lees. 



166 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

ment8, it is very possible that the per centage of the fleece may be increased, 

Mr. Lavvi'ence, in speaking of attaining a four-pound fleece of " exquisite" 
quality, undoubtedly alluded to the wool which I have classed as superfine. 
The four-pound fleeced fine Merino can undoubtedly ^e made superfine, 
by diminishing the weight of its fleece 10 or 12 ounces or a pound ; 
and even then it will be a hardier and better animal than the finer 
class of Saxons which now produce this wool. But whether Mr. Law- 
rence's standard can be fully attained, neither experience nor obser- 
vation enable me to decide. If it could, and the sheep be equal to the 
four-pound ^'«e-fleeced Merino in other respects, we should have o, perfect 
sheep. Such wool has sold this year at upward of 60 cents per pound, 
which would bring the fleeces to $2 40 a piece ! It may be well here to 
glance at the comparative worth of fleeces in the several Merino families, 
taking this year's prices, g,nd taking the weights which are usually found 
accompanying the several qualities, in prime ordinary flocks. A fine fleece 
of 4 lbs., at 50 cents,* would be worth $2 ; good medium, weighing 4i 
lbs., at 40 cents. Si 80 ; medium, weighing 5 lbs., at 32 cents, $1 60. And 
the consumption of feed rises with the diminution of quality. Admitting 
the daily consumption of hay for 150 days to be 3 per cent, to the live- 
weight, 100 fine Mei'inos, averaging 85 lbs. each, would consume about 19 
tons of hay; and 100 medium Merinos, averaging 105 lbs. each, would 
consume about 23^ tons — an important difference in their relative ex- 
penses ! The fine-wooled Merino does not, like the Saxon, lose his ad- 
vantage in this particular by his inferior hardiness. 

The shape and general appearance of the Merino should be as follows : 
The head should be well carried up, and in the ewe hornless. It would 
be better on many accounts to have the ram also hornless, but, being usu- 
ally characteristic of the Merino, many prefer to see them. The face 
should be shortish, broad between the eyes, the nose pointed, and in the 
ewe fine and free from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately 
prominent, and gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight (not 
curving downward), short, round, stout — particularly so at its junction with 
the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it shovxld not sink below 
the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise to any 
perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to the hips, 
should be straight ; the crops (that portion of the body immediately back 
of the shoulder-blades) full ; the ribs well arched ; the body large and ca- 
pacious ; the flank well let down ; the hind-quarters full and round — the 
flesh meeting well down between the thighs, (or in the " twist.") The 
bosom should be broad and full ; the legs short, well apart, and perpendic- 
ular, {i.e., not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is 
standing.) Viewed as a whole, the Merino should present the appearance 
of a low, stout, plump, and — though differing essentially from the English 
mutton-sheep model — a highly symmetrical sheep. 

The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, 
of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, ap- 
proaching to a butternut hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject of 
wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. Being rather characteristic of 
the Merino — like the black color in a Berkshire hog, or the absence of all 
color in Durham cattle — these wrinkles have been more regarded, by nov- 
ices, than those points which give actual value to the animal ; and shrewd 
breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint ! Many have contended 
that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin ; and this is the viev/ 

* This is not high tor fine Merino wool. Though I sold my lot for 42 cents, I was oflered 50 cents for tbe 
fleeces of neaiiy all my later-bred sheep, if I would sell them separately. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 167 

of the case which has induced both the Spanish and French breeders to 
cultivate them — the latter to a monstrosity. I confess that I agree, to a 
considerable extent, with Mr. Joshua Kirby Ti'immer,* that " this idea is 
as wild as that which some of our theorists have entertained, that, by lay- 
ing lands in high ridges and low furrows, the surface of the earth and its 
produce is increased." Though I once entertained a different opinion, the 
steel-yards have satisfied me that an exceedingly wrinkled neck does not 
add but a little to the weight of the fleece — not enough to compensate for 
the deformity, and the great impediment which it places in the way of the 
shearer. I have owned rams, the labor of shearing six of which, in a nice 
and workmanlike manner — cutting the wool off short and smooth, on and 
among the multitude of folds and wrinkles — was fully equivalent to shear- 
ing fifteen ordinary Merino rams, or twenty-five ewes — that is to say, a 
day's work for one man. And none but a skillful shearer could, with any 
time given him, clip the wool short and smooth "among the wrinkles, with- 
out frequently and severely cutting the skin. A smoothly drawn skin, and 
absence of all dewlap, on the other hand, would not, perhaps, be desirable. 

The wool of the Merino should densely cover the whole body, where it 
can possibly grow, from a point between and a little below the eyes, and 
well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, 
particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and 
hocks — but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose below the 
eyes, is unsightly — without value — and on the faces it frequently impedes 
the sight of the animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, 
and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool, 
as seems to be thought by some, the slightest indication of a heavy fleece. 
I have as often seen it on Saxons scarcely shearing 2 lbs. of wool, and on 
the very lightest fleeced Merinos. 

The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit, is another of the 
mooted points. Here, as in many other particulars, experience has 
changed my earlier impressions. Merino wool should be yolky or " oily," 
prior to washing — though not to that extreme extent, giving it the ap- 
pearance of being saturated with grease, occasionally witnessed. The 
extreme tips of the wool may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the 
fleece a darkish cast — particularly in the ram — but a black, pitchy gum, 
resembling semi-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch 
into the fleece, and which cannot he removed in ordinary toashing, is, in my 
opinion, decidedly objectionable. There is a white or yellowish concrete 
gum, not removable by common washing, which appears in the interior of 
some fleeces, which is equally objectionable. 

The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with 
compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, inasmuch as it constitutes 
a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the 
sheep from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in sjiring and fall. 
The wool should be as nearly as possible of even length and thickness 
over the whole body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or thinness 
on the belly, are serious defects. 

" Evenness of fleece " is a point of the first importance. Many sheep 
exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and 
even hairy on the thighs, dewlap, &c. Rams of this stamp should not be 
bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-wooled flock, and 
all such ewes should be gradually excluded from those selected for 
breeding. 

The "style of the wool" is a point of as much consequence as mere 

* " Practical Observations on the Improvemeat of British Fine Wools, &c." by the above, 1828. 



168 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

fineness. Some very fine wool is stiff and the fibres almost straight, like 
hair. It has a dry, cottony look. This is a poor, unsalable article, how- 
ever fine the fibre. Softness of wool — a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel, 
between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to look after. This is 
usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities, so 
that an experienced judge can decide, with little difficulty, between the 
quahty of two fleeces, in the dark ! Wool should be finely serrated or 
crimped from one extremity to the other — i. e., it should present a regular 
series of minute curves, and, generally, the greater the number of these 
curves in a given length, the higher the quality of wool in all other 
particulars. The wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected 
masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size 
of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece ; and when the wool is 
pressed open each way with the hands, it should be dense enough to con- 
ceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of the wool 
should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and " liveliness " of look 
not surpassed in the best silk. 

The points in the Jhrm of the Merino which the breeder is called upon 
particularly to eschew, are — a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes — 
a thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders — bad crops — 
back falling behind the shoulders — narrow loin — flat ribs — steep, narrow 
hind quarters — long legs — thighs scarcely meeting at all — legs drawn far 
under the body at the least approach of cold. All these points were sep- 
arately or conjointly illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have 
been recently swept from the country. The points to be avoided in the 
fleece have been sufficiently adverted to. 

Having thus attempted to establish a standard for the Merino-breeder, 
it remains that we examine some of the most important principles, in 
breeding, by which that standard is to be reached or maintained. 

The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is that "like 
will beget like." If the sire and dam are perfect in any given point, the 
offspring will generally be ; if either is defective, the offspring will (sub- 
ject to a law presently to be adverted to) be half way between the two; 
if both are defective in the same point, the progeny will be more so than 
either of its parents — it will inherit the amount of the defect in both pa- 
rents added together. There are exceedingly few perfect animals. Breed- 
ing, then, is a system of counterbalancing — breeding out — in the offspring, 
the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, 
in the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it 
the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny ; but 
blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater 
degree than the female. We may, therefoie, in the beginning, breed 
from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impro- 
priety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose ; but the 
flockmaster, aiming at a high standard of quality, should gradually throw 
out from breeding all ewes possessing even considerable defects. Every 
year should make him more rigorous in his selection. But from the be- 
ginning — and in the beginning more than at any other time — the greatest 
care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. If he has a defect, 
that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock. If it is a material 
one, as, for example, a hollow back, bad crops, a thin fleece, or a highly 
uneven fleece, the flock will be one of low quality and little value. If, on 
the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the females will be lessened, 
and gradually bred out. But it being difficult to find perfect rams, we are 
to take those wliich have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 169 

these material ones, like those just enumerated. And these defects are to 
be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence (sometimes running 
to a fault) of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram is a little too long- 
legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him ; if gummy, 
the dryest-wooled ewes ; if his fleece is a trifle below the prgper standard 
of fineness, (but he has been retained, as it often happens, for weight of 
fleece and general excellence,) he is to be put to the finest and lightest 
fleeced ewes, and so on. Having a selection of rams, this system of coun- 
terbalancing would require little skill, if each parent possessed but one 
fault. If the ewe was a trifle too thin fleeced, and good in all other par- 
ticulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she needed to be 
bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to 
a greater or less degree, several defects. To select so that every one of 
these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and vice versa, re- 
quires not only plentiful materials to select from, but the keenest dis- 
crimination. The time and the convenient method of selecting the ewes 
for the several rams, and the subsequent management, will be hereafter 
pointed out. 

We will now suppose that the breeder has established his flock — that 
he has done so successfully, and given them an excellent character. He 
is soon met with a serious evil. He must " breed in-and-in," as it is called 
— that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood 
— or he must seek rams from other flocks, to the risk of losing or changing 
the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto sought so sedulously, and 
built up with so much care. It is contended by the opponents of in-and-in 
breeding that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that 
it tends to decrease of size, to debility, and a general breaking up of the 
constitution. Its apologists, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents 
are perfectly healthy, incestuous connexion does not, per se, tend to any 
diminution of healthiness in the offspring ; and they also claim, what must 
be conceded, that it enables the skillful breeder much more rapidly to 
bring his flock to a particular standard or model — and much more easily 
to keep it there — unless it be true that, in course of time, they will dwin- 
dle and grow feeble. So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, 
both positions may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, diffi- 
cult to always decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from 
disease, but from all tendency or predisposition toward it. A brother and 
sister may be apparently healthy — may be actually so — but may possess 
an idiosyncrasy which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itself. — 
If these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live, apparently 
possessing a robust constitution, until old age. If bred together, their off- 
spring, by a rule already laid down, will possess the idiosyncrasy in a 
double degree. Suppose the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, 
daughters, grand-daughters, &c., for several generations, the predisposition 
toward a particular disease — in the first place slight, now strong, and con- 
stantly growing stronger — will pei'vade, and become radically incorporated 
into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time the requisite ex- 
citing causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such 
circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal 
charactei% the flock is rapidly swept away ; if not, it becomes chronic, or 
periodical at frequently recurring intervals. The same remarks apply, in 
part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, from their 
slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly 
increased until, almost before thought of by the owner, they destroy the 
value of the sheep. That such are the common effects of in-and-in breed- 

Y 



170 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

— i 

ing, with such skill as it is ordinarily conducted, all know who have given J 
attention to the subject; and for these reasons the system is looked upon iij 
with decided disapprobation and repugnance, as among all kinds of domes- li 
tic animals, by nine out of ten of the best j^iactical farmers of the Northern j 
States. a 

How, then, shall the sheep-breeder avoid the effects of in-and-in breed- ] 
ing, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock ] He should. ] 
do so by seeking rams of the sa?ne hreed, and possessing, as nearly as pos- \ 
sihle, the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his oivn fiock. If the i; 
latter rule is neglected — if he draws indiscriminately from all the difllerent i 
families or varieties of a breed — some large and some small — some long i 
and some short-wooled — some medium and some superfine in quality — ] 
some tall and some squabby — some crusted, over with black gum, some i| 
entirely free from it, &c. &c. — breeding will become a mere hotch-potch, " 
and no certain or uniform results can be looked for. So many varieties 
cannot be fused into one, for a number of generations ;* and it not unfre- , 
quently happens, as between the different classes of Saxons alluded to by , 
Mr. Spooner,t that certain families can never be successfully amalgamated. 

But suppose the breeder has reached no satisfactory staiidard — that his 
sheep are deficient in the requisites he desires % If the desired requisites \ 
are characteristic of the breed he possesses, he is to adhere to the hreed, and j 
select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. If he has an infe- ., 
rior flock of South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best | 
South Dams, he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he I 
wishes to obtain qualities not characteristic of the breed he possesses, he | 
must cross loith a breed which does possess thevi. If the possessor of South- | 
Downs wishes to conveit them into a fine-wooled sheep similar to the Me- j 
rino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino rams — constantly in- | 
creasing the amount of Merino and diminishing the amount of South-Down \ 
blood. To effect the same result, he would take the same course with the 1 
common sheep of the country, or any other coarse race. There are ■ 
those who, forgetful that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of , 
several kinds of domestic animals, are the result oi crosses, bitterly inveigh \ 
against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. As fre- ; 
quently conducted, where objects incompatible with each other are sought 
to be attained — as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a Merino 
and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between those breeds — it is an • 
unqualified absurdity. But under the limitations already laid down, and ' 
with the objects specified as legitimate ones, objection to crossing savors, 
in my judgment, of prejudice the most profound, or quackery the most 
unvarnished. The cry, " buy full-bloods," with such men, generally means, 
" buy our full-bloods ! " It is neither convenient, nor within the means of 
every man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to start exclusively with full- 
bloods. With a few full-bloods to breed rams from, and to begin a full- 
blood flock, the Southern breeder will find it his best policy to purchase 
the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with 
Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, fair size, good shape, and a robust 
constitution, are the main points — the little difference that exists between 
the quality of the common sheep's wool is of no consequence. For their 
wool they are to look to the Merino ; but good form and constitution they 
can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely un- 
necessary evils on their progeny, 

* This ocrnwons the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock in France, which was begun by a pro 

misruous aiimixture of all the Spauish families. 
t Quoted in Letter X. 



j SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 171 

j I have already spoken, in this Letter, incidentally, of the effect on the 
jfleece of the common sheep, by crossing with the Merino and breeding 
jeteadily toward the latter ; and also of the mutton of this cross, as 
I well as that of the Merino and the English breeds. The result of 
|the cross with the common sheep has been sufficiently described. I would 
iadd a few remarks in relation to that with the South-Down and Leicester 
— both of which I have tried until sufficiently satisfied with the result. 

Resolved on making an experiment with a Down and Merino cross, a few 
years since, and finding it difficult to obtain Down ewes* of the proper 
quality, I obtained a small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even- 
tleeced Down ram,t and crossed him with a i'ew large-sized Merino ewes. 

The half-blood ewes were bred to a Merino ram, and also their female 
progeny, and so on. The South-Down form and disposition to take on 
fat manifested itself, to a perceptible extent, in every generation which I 
bred,J and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation (-|-blood 
Merino and -i-blood Down) was very even, and equal to medium, and 
some of them to good medium Mei'ino. Their fleeces were lighter than 
the full-blood Merino, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross 
back toward the latter. Their mutton of the first, and even the second 
cross, was of a beautiful flavor — and it retained some of the superiority of 
South-Down mutton to the last. 

' 1 at the same time purchased a few Leicester ewes,|| and, as in the 
preceding case, taking one cross of the blood, I bred toward the Merino. 
The mongi-els, to the second generation (beyond which I did not breed 
them) were about midway between the size of the two parent stocks — 
with wool shorter, but far finer and more compact than the Leicester — 
their fleeces about the same in weight as in the present stocks§ — and alto- 
gether they wei'e a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to 
please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces lacked evenness — their thighs 
remaining disproportionately coarse and hairy ; and making up my mind 
that this would always be a tendency of the sheep of this cross, 1 aban- 
doned them without farther experiment. 

In relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to 
breed from a mongrel ram, there is a difference of opinion. Mr. Livings- 
ton says :fl 

" Tt is now so well established as not even to admit of the smallest doubt that a Merino in 
the fourth generation, from even the worst-wooled ewes, is in evei-y respect equal to the 
stock of the sire. No difference is now made in Europe in the choice of a ram, whether he 
is a full-blood or a fifteen-sixteenths." .... " The French agricidturists say that however 
coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny iii the fourth generation 
will not show it." 

I am constrained to differ with even this high authority. I admit that 
the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary 
transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring. As soon as 
a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on his 
progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally 
valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal. But I do not 

* To carry out the commonly received principle in breeding, that in crossing between different races the 
ram of the smaller should be put to ewe of the larger one. 

t This ram, obtained from F"rancis Rotch, Ei-q , was got by a prize ram of Mr. Ellman's, and from one of 
his choicest breeding-ewes, and showed infinitely more style, as well as fineness and evenness of wool, 
than the common Downs of our country. He was not larger than a large-sized Merino ram. 

I These I finally put off to save myself the trouble of breeding several kinds of sheep on the same farm. 

H Descended from the flock of the late Robert Adcock. of Otsego County, N. Y. — considered at the time 
equal to any flock in the State. 

§ That is, about 5 lbs. I have put down the Leicester fleece, in my description of the breed, at 6 lbs., as 
this is the amount generally claimed for them ; but in the few cases brought within my direct knowledge, 
they have never averaged it. My ewes above alluded to did not, I thiak, average quite 5 lbs. 

% Essay on Sheep, pp. 181, 183. 



172 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

believe that this can be depended upon, with ajiy certainty, in rams of the 
fourth Merino cross. My only experience in this particular is in the ob- 
servation of other men's flocks w^ho have bred with high-grade rams.* 
These have invariably lacked the style and perfection of thorough-bred 
flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth ci'oss might be generally, and the 
last perhaps almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams, but I confess 
I should still prefer to adhere to the latter. Pure blood is a fixed stand- 
ard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it, 
in his rams, each one more or less, according to his own judgment or 
caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. No 
man would be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, be it the tenth, or 
even the twentieth, as a full-blood. 

It is all-important for those commencing flocks either of full-bloods, or 
by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram may be made to 
serve II from 100 to 150 ewes in a season. A good Merino j"am will, 
speaking within bounds, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of 
the dam, on every lamb got by it, from a common-wooled ewe.§ Here is 
one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a 
ram for a single season ! And every lamb subsequently got by him adds a 
pound to this amount. Many a ram gets, during his life, 800 or 1,000 
lambs ! Nor as the extra amount of wool all. He gets from 800 to 1,000 
half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the 
basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is 
as important, and, it seems to 7ne, quite as valnable an animal as a good 
farm-horse stallion ! When the number of a ram's progeny are taken into 
consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in 
his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, 
the folly of that economy which would select an inferior one is sufficiently 
obvious. 

Every one desirous of starting a flock will find it his best economy, 
where the proper flocks to draw rams from are not near him, to purchase 
several of the same breed, of course, but oi different strains of blood. Thus, 
ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and vice versa ; No. 3 can 
be put upon the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3. 
The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without 
in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable dan- 
ger, are innumerable.^ But if these rams of different strains are bought 
promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there 
may, and probably will be differences between them, and it might require 
time and skill to give a flock descended from them, a proper uniformity of 
character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish 
different strains of blood with the necessary individual and family uni 
formity. 

* I have never knowingly bred with any other ram than a pure-blood, of any stock, or for any purpoee. 

n By methods hereafter to be described. 

§ That is, if the ewe at 3 years old sheared 3 lbs. of wool, the lamb at the eame age will shear 4 lbs. of 
wool. 

^ The brother and sister are of the «ome blood ; the father and daughter, half; the father and grand- 
daughter, one-fourth ; the father and groat grand-daughter, one-eighth, and so on. Breeding between an- 
imals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding ; and it is not 
uncustomary, in rugged, well-formed famQies, to breed between those poeseeeing one-fourth of the same 
blood. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 173 



LETTER XII. 

SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 



Tagging — necessity of— method of doing it.. -Burs— how avoided... Lambing — time of— Inclosures for— 
Mechanical Assistance — when rendered — assisting the Lamb — Feeding — necessary care in — Warming — 
Foster Ewes.. .Pens..." Pmning".. .Kumbering and Registering — advantages of — Von Thaer's System of 
Numbering — manner of doing it conveniently— iMr. Grove's foi-m of a Register. . .Castration and Docking 
— proper time and method... Washing — time — necessary apparatus — "wetting'' — manner of washing — 
ordinary waste in subsequent cleansing.. Cutting the Hoofs — best time — implements — method.. .Time 
between Washing and Shearing. . ..-hearing — proper conveniences for — catcher's business — directions to 
shearer — general directions.. .Shearing Lambs — shearing Sheep semi-annually — objectionable practices... 
Doing up Wool — Wool Table and Trough — handling fleece — aiTangenient on table — folding — rolling— ty- 
ing — proper twine- . .Storing Wool — WoobRoom.. .Sacking Wool — methods.. .Sorting the Flock at shear, 
ing — how done.. -Marking Sheep— the proper way. ..Cold Storms after Shearing.. .Sun-scald. . .Ticks — 
how destroyed.. -Maggots — jjreventives.. .Cutting the Honis. . .Division of Flocks for Summer.. .Hop- 
pling — Clogging, &c. .-"Dangerous Rams.. .Fences.. -Salt.. .Tar... Water... Shade.. .Weaning Lamba... 
Full Feeding... Shepherd's Crook. 

Dear Sir : Agreeably to your request, and that of various other South- 
ern friends, I proceed to give directions for the practical management of 
sheep " plain and minute enough for the guidance of those entirely unac- 
quainted with the subject." I will begin with their Summer Management.* 

Tagging. — If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will 
usually purge more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The 
wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which 
forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. But whether this takes 
place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the 
ordinary process of washing. It forms a great impediment in shearing, 
dulling and straining the sheai's to cut through it when in a dry state, and 
it is often impracticable so to do. It is difficult to force the shears be- 
tween it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. 
Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to 
shearing, and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered 
and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death. 

Before sheep are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared 
from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs, 
over the surface included between the dotted lines in ^'s- 16. 

the cut. The wool should be sheared from off the en- 
tire bag of the ewe, that the newly dropped lamb may 
more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and 
so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram, 
as is usually kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, 
soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the con- 
stant maceration of the urine. 

Sometimes each tagger catches and holds his own 
sheep, but it is, on the whole, better, I think, to have an assistant catch the 
sheep and hold them while they are tagged. The latter process requires 
a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the 
object is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have an unsightly and 
ridiculous appearance, when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off; 

* I have not thought it necessary to mark with quotation points, various extracts in this Letter, from a 
series of Letters written by me a number of years since, and published in the " Valley Farmer." 




174 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

and, on the other hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep 
at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that on the bag of an ewe near 
lambing. The wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the ex- ! 
penses of the operation. It answers well for stockings and other ordinary ) 
domestic purposes, or it will sell for something like half the price of fleece \ 
wool. ' 

Humanity and economy both dictate that care should be taken in han- 'i 
dling sheep at all times, and it is especially important with ewes heavy i 
with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and han- 
dle them roughly, for even if abortion, the woi'st consequence of such ' 
treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, render- ' 
ing it difficult to catch or render them assistance at the lambing period — ^ 
and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes where it is sometimes ^ 
necessary to confine them at that time, without having them driving about \ 
pell-mell, running over their lambs, &;c. It may not be known to every i 
one, that if a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool when running, or is « 
lifted by its wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body \ 
at the points where it is thus seized, and if killed a day or two afterward, ' 
blood will be found settled about those parts. A man knowing this, and • 
subsequently guilty of such gratuitous brutality, richly deserves to be 
kicked out of the sheep-yard. When sheep are to be handled, they should 
be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being : 
crowded — so they shall have no chance to run and dash about. The 
catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind leg close above the ' 
hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the 1 
buttocks. Then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he I 
should throw his right ai'm over and about it immediately back of the 
shoulders, place his hand under the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. ' 
If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his 
fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. J 
He then should set it carefully on its rump on the tagging-table, (which | 
should be 18 or 20 inches high,) support its back with his legs, and hold 
it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. Two 
men should not be permitted to lift the same sheep together, as it will be 
pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good shearer and 
assistant will tag 200 sheep per day. | 

Where sheep receive green feed all the year round, as they will do in 1 
many parts of the South, and no purging ensues from eating the newly- ' 
starting grasses in the spring, tagging will not be necessary. vi 

Burs, &c. — If sheep are let out in the spring into pastures where the ' 
dry stalks of the Burdock (Arctium lajJjx^Jt or the Hound's Tongue, or j 
Tory-weed ( Cynoglossum officinale), have remained standing over the win- - 
ter, the burs are caught in their now long wool, and, if numerous, the wool . 
is rendered entirely unmarketable, and almost valueless. Even the dry 
prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numer- j 
ous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and 
among them to crop the first scarce feed of the Northern spring ; and, in- 
dependently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and other- 
wise handle the sheep. The Burdock being a large and not very frequent 
plant, there is no excuse for its being found on the farm. The Hound's . 
Tongue is very prevalent in forests and partly wooded pastures in the ; 
Noi-th, and it is not conspicuous enough to be easily eradicated, though ' 
careful sheep-farmers often do so. If sheep are let into pastures contain- ; 
ing it, it must be only in the summer and fall, after shearing. The burs, \ 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 175 

ipot sunk so deeply in the shoi't wool, will wear out during our winters — 
ilbut no man thinks of letting his sheep into pastures containing it, before 
.JBhearing in the spring. Indeed, sheep should be kept on the cleanest pas- 
liltures — those free from these and all similar plants — during this period ; 
ijand, in a region where they are pastured the year round, if such pests are 
not eradicated — which I should consider indispensable — the sheep should 
Jbe kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing. 

Lambing. — Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to 

the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might safely come earlier. It is 

not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold and boister- 

iious, as they require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the 

j weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give 

Ijthe ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion 

I of milk. It is customary in the North to have fields of clover, or the earli- 

1 est grasses, reserved for the early spring feed of the breeding ewes; and, 

i! if these can be contiguous to their shelters, it is a great convenience — for 

the ewes should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during 

the lambing season. 

If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer to have the 
lambing take place in the pastures. I think sheep are more disposed to 
own and take kindly to their lambs thus, than in the confusion of a small 
inclosure. Unless particularly docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd, 
from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs, 
pressing them severely, &c. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and. 
then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them 
about. Young and timid ewes get separated from their lambs, and fre- 
quently will neglect them for an hour or more before they will again ap- 
proach them. If the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never 
sucked, stands a chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a 
dirty inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the mem- 
brane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung — and 
the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much increases the hazard of 
freezing. 

Nevertheless, all this must be incurred in cold storms, and in sudden 
and severe weather ; and, therefore, it should be the eflfort of every shep- 
herd to teach his sheep docility. I have seen the late Mr. Grove walk 
about a bai'n filled with his Saxons, not only without their crowding from 
side to side, but many of them absolutely lying still while he stepped over 
them ! I say it " must be incurred." I mean by this that it is the safest 
course with all breeds, and a matter of necessity with others. It takes but 
a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, which 
(the pure blood) is yeaned nearly as naked as a child ! During a severely 
cold period, of several days' continuance, it is almost impossible to rear 
them, even in the best shelter. The Merino, South-Down, and some other 
breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity. 

Inclosures, when used for yeaning, should be kept clean by frequent lit- 
terings of straw — not enough, however, thrown on at one time, to embar- 
rass the lamb about rising. 

The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition. — 
Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her 
loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go 
about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and 
nose of the lamb showing at the mouth of the vagina. But, if let alone, 
Nature will generally finally relieve her. This might not do with the 



176 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

heavy English breeds. I should infer not, from the elaborate directions, 
in the premises, by Youatt,Blacklock, and other English wiiters on Sheep; 
though with the comparatively small number of these varieties which I 
have bred, I hive had no difficulty in this particular. Among the thou- 
sands and thousands of fine-wooled sheep which I have bred, I never have 
known a single instance of a false presentation of the fcetus, and never 
have had mechanical assistance rendered in to exceed half a dozen in- 
stances. The objection to interfering, except as a last resort, is that the 
ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. — 
When aided, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction 
with the efforts of the ewe. 

While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise, and the ewe 
is licking it dry, it is better to be in no haste to interfere. A lamb that 
gets at the teat without help, and gets even a small quantity of milk, knows 
how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it sometimes 
continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for two or three days. — 
The same is true when lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle. 

But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise, particularly if the ewe has 
left off licking it while it is wet and chilly, it is time for the shepherd to 
render his assistance. It is better not to throw the ewe down, as is fre- 
quently practiced, to suckle the lamb, because instinct teaches the latter to 
point its nose vfward in search of the teat. It is doubly difficult, there- 
fore, to induce it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe ; and when 
taught to do this, by being suckled so several times, I have invariably no- 
ticed that it renders it awkward about finding the teat in the naUiral posi- 
tion, when it begins to stand and help itself. Nothing is stupider than a 
weakly lamb! Carefully disengaging the ewe froin her companions, with 
his crook, the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other 
behind the buttocks of the ewe, and, then pressing her against his knees, 
he should hold her firmly and stilly, so that she shall not be constantly 
crowding away ffom the shepherd. The shepherd should set the lamb on 
its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible ; if not, supporting it on its feet by 
placing one hand under its body — place its mouth to the teat, and encour- 
age it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, &c., with a 
finger. The lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will re- 
double its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will evince great dullness, and 
even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist 
itself, crowding backward, &c. ; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who 
will not sink himself to the level of a hrute by resenting the stupiditij of a 
brute, will generally carry the point by persevei'ance. Sometimes milking 
a little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will in- 
duce it to take hold. 

If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed until the natural supply 
commences, with small quantities of the milk of a new-milch cow. This 
should be mixed, say half and half, with water — with enough molasses to 
give it the purgative effect of biestings, or the first milk — gently warmed 
to the natui'al heat (not scalded and suffered to cool), and then fed thT'ough 
a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should suck, 
if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a 
spoon or bottle, as already remarked, it is frequently difficult afterward to 
induce it to suck. And, moreover, unless milk is poured in the mouth 
slowly and with care — no faster than the lamb can swallow — a speedy 
wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the 
fluid has been forced into the lungs. I have known lambs frequently 
killed in this way. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 177 

If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped up in a woolen blanket, 
and placed in a warm room — giving a little milk as soon as it will swal- 
low. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and 1 think with 
good effect, to rouse the cold and torpid stomach into action. Some of the 
Yankee old ladies, under such circumstances, " hake " the lamb, as it is 
called — i. e., put it in a blanket in a moderately heated oven, until 
warmth and animation are restored. Others immerse it in tepid water, 
and subsequently rub it dry. This is said to be an excellent method 
where the lamb is nearly frozen. I never have tried it, A good blanket, 
a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction, have always 
sufficed. 

If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chances to lose her lamb, she 
should be required to biing up one of some other ewe's pair of twins — or 
the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of 
milk. Her own lamb should be skinned, as soon as possible after death, 
and the skin sowed over the lamb which she is required to foster. She 
will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day or two, and if so, she should 
be kept in a small pen with the lamb, being occasionally looked to. After 
taking well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If 
no lamb is placed on a ewe which has lost her lamb, and which has a 
full bag of milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or 
garget may ensue. If it does not, permanent indurations, or other re- 
sults of inflammatory action will often take place, injuring the subsequent 
nursing properties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the 
bag for some time in cold water. It checks the subsequent secretions of 
milk, as well as abates inflammation. Garget will be treated under the 
head of Diseases of Sheep. 

Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her 
lamb, will not stand for it to suck ; and in this case, if the lamb is not very 
strong and persevering, and especially if the weather is cold, it soon grows 
weak and perishes. The conduct of the dam in such cases is occasioned 
by inflammatory action abo-^t the bag or teats — and, perhaps somewhat by 
the novelty of her position ! In this case the sheep should be caught and 
held until the lamb has exhausted the bag, and there will not often be any 
trouble afterward, though it may be well enough to keep them in a pen 
together until the fact is determined. 

I have several times spoken o^ pens. They are necessary in the cases I 
have mentioned, and in a variety of others. It is therefore well for the 
flock-master to be always provided with a few of them for emergencies. 
They need not be to exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built 
of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so they can be 
readily moved by one, or, at the most, two men, from place to place, 
where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted when 
sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles, laid 
up fence fashion, and each nailed or pegged to the lower ones, at the cor- 
ners, as laid on, would make excellent ones. Two or three sides of a few 
of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered to shel- 
ter feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, &c. 

Young lambs are subject to what is technically called " pinning," — that 
is, their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of 
the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering 
matter should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry 
clay to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will frequently perish from 
this cause if not looked to for the first few davs. 

Z ^ 



178 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

Numbering and Registering. — This is not absolutely necessaiy for the 
ivool-grower, though it is, in many points of view, a vast convenience to 
him, and leads to a degree of system in his efforts after improvement, and 
gives a definiteness and precision to the execution of his plans, otherwise 
unattainable. But the breeder — he who makes it his business more par- 
ticularly to raise choice animals to sell for breeding purposes — is unwor- 
thy of the name, if he does not regularly number and register his sheep, 
so that he can trace the descent of any ram or ewe, through any number 
of generations. This is not merely to gratify an idle curiosity, or to fur- 
nish a purchaser with a sounding pedigree. Every breeder is under the ne- 
cessity of directly breeding in-and-in, or of occasionally employing new 
strains of blood. If the latter step is often resorted to, the hazard is in- 
creased of changing the character of the flock.* 'If he numbers and regis- 
ters his sheep, he can breed " closer," t and consequently longer, without a 
change, without the hazard of confusion or mistake. Where half a dozen, 
or even three or four rams are used in the flock the same year, it would be 
beyond the power of any breeder, relying on his memory alone, to decide, 
six or eight or ten years subsequently, which were the daughters, grand- 
daughters, and great-grand-daughters of each. If the rams A and B be un- 
related, A may be put to the daughters of B, and then B be put to the 
produce, {L e., his own grand-daughter, got by A,) without " close " breed- 
ing — because they possess but one-quarter of the same blood. Then the 
great-grand-daughter may be again put to A, because she possesses but one- 
quarter of /lis blood. As I remarked in my last Letter, with tJiree strains 
of blood to start with, the breeder may ring innumej-able changes, without 
ever trenching on that line which marks the boundaries of close breeding. 
He who pretends that he can preserve such multiplied classifications in 
his memory alone, is unworthy of the least confidence. 

There is another very important consideration. Numbering and regis- 
tering enables the breeder to trace hrceding effects definitely to their causes. 
Suppose that he finds that an unusual number of his young ewes are 
poor nurses — or exhibit some imperfection of form or wool. He can re- 
move the j^f'csent effect by throwing out the defective ones. But the undis- 
covered cause may still remain in operation. It may be a particular ram, 
or the result of interbreeding between such ram, and ewes of a certain 
strain of blood. If this ram, ov jjerhajys others got by him, be permitted to 
breed, or breed with a particular class of ewes, the evil creeps along in the 
flock, its cause remaining undiscovered. But if the breeder could fix the 
precise pedigree of every sheep, from an accurately kept register, he 
would soon ascertain what strains of blood, or the conjunction of what 
strains, produced the evil. By the same means, he could as readily trace 
the sources of paiticular excellence. 

The system of numbering invented by the celebrated Von Thaer is far 
preferable to any other which I have seen.| It is as follows : |1 

* A ram of a new strain of blood, though of prime quality, and apparently possessing the same charac- 
teristics with the tiock, does not always interbreed well with the tiock in all those minute particulars which 
the breeder is bound to notice, though they might escape the eye of the ordinary fiock-master. Every 
breeder, therefore, who has a flock that suits him, is exceedingly averse to an infusion of new blood, and 
resorts to it only as a matter of necessity. 

t That is, he can breed in-and-in somewhat. " Close" breeding is breeding between near affinities, such 
as between brother and sister, which are of the same blood, or between a father and a grand-daughter be- 
gotten on a dauahter, which would be three-fourths of the same blood, ifcc. 

t It will not cause half the mutilation of the system given in the American Shepherd — is simple, and 
gives the a^e. which the former does not. Neither can this system of giving the age be ingrafted on 
that system of numberinc. 

II As furnished me by Mr. Grove, a number of years since, with this exception, that the point of the 
richt ear cut square ofl", he made to stand for 700 instead of .500, as I have placed it. 1 made this change, 
as" the notch and clip standing for 100 and 400, comiog on the point of the same ear, there was no com» 
binulion to express 000. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



179 



Riglit ear. 



Fi?. 17. 



One notch over the left ear, (that which is on your left when the 
face of the sheep is from you,) stands for 1 ; two notches over the 
same, for 2. One notch under the left ear stands 
for 3. Three such notches cairy up the number 
to 9. One notch over the right ear stands for 10 ; 
two such for 20. One notch under the same stands 
for 30 ; and three such for 90. Combinations of the 
above (three notches under each ear) would carry 
up the number to 99. These four classes of notches 
which express all parts of a hundred, are shown in 
the first of the annexed cuts. A sheep marked 
like fig. 17 would be No. 44. 

A notch in the end of left ear, as in fig. 18, 
stands for 100 ; in right do. 200. In addition to 
these there are on the same cut two 1 notches, one 
3 notch, one 10 do., and two 30 do. Adding the 
whole together, the sheep would therefore be No. 
375. 




No. 44—1841. 



Fis. 18. 




No. 909—1848. 



As the 100 and 200 notches, together, make 300, 
no separate notch is required for the latter number. 
The point of the left ear cut square off, as in fig. 19, 
cut, stands for 400 ; the point of the right cut square "O" 
off, for 500. The latter and the 100 notch would 
make 600, and so on. 

The lambs of each year and each sex are num- 
bered from 1. 

The age is expressed by round Jioles through 
the ears, standing for the year in which the sheep 
is born. As there is no possibility of making a 
mistake of ten years in the age of a sheep, these marks are the same be- 
tween each tenth year of the century. Between 1840 and 1850, no hole 
would express 1840 ; one hole in the left ear, 1841 ; two holes in the left 
ear, 1842 ; one hole in the right ear, 1843 ; one hole in the right and one in 
the left, 1844 ; one hole in the right and two in the left, 1845 ; two in the 
light, 1846 ; two in the right and one in the left, 1847 ; two in each, 1848 ; 
three in the right, 1849 ; none in either, 1850 — and the same for the next 
ten years. Examples are given in the preceding cuts. In other words, 
one hole in the left ear signifies 1, and one in the right 3, as applied to 
the years between each tenth of a century — and the combinations of these 
holes are made to express all the intermediate years, with the exception 
of the tenth. 

Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a mark (en- 
tirely distinct from the mark of ownership) which will continue visible un- 
til the next shearing. Nothing is better for this purpose than Venetian 
Red and hog's lard, well incorpoi-ated, and marked on with a cob. The 
ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark should 
also be made on the ram, or a minute of it in the sheep-book. Thus it 
can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tupped, any time 
before the next shearing. 

The holes in the ears, indicating the year, being the same on the whole 
annual crop of lambs, may be made at any convenient time. The holes 
are most conveniently made by a saddler's spring-punch, the cutting cyl- 
inder of which is about j?g of an inch in diameter. If too small, the holes 
will grow up in healing. 

In numbering, it is difficult to prevent mistakes, if it is defeixed until 



180 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



the lamb attains much size. If penned with the dams when a month or 
two old, hours will sometimes elapse before each lamb will suck — the only 
certain indication to which ewe it belongs. It being perfectly safe to per- 
form this process when the lamb is only about a day old (or as soon as the 
lamb can walk, if it is a strong one), the shepherd carries the notcher in 
his pocket, and a little book, each page being ruled into six columns, and 
headed as in the register presently given. This constitutes the day-hook^ 
which is subsequently drawn off on the Register. 

The notcher which I use is of my own invention, and I have found it far 
preferable to any I have seen elsewhere. It consists of a saddler's spring- 
punch — the cutting cylinder being taken out, and a little sharp chisel of 
the same length being screwed in its place. The edge of the chisel de- 
scribes a semi-ellipsis, cutting a notch out of the ear \ of an inch deep, and 
a little over -^^ wide at the base. A triangular cut in the ear, with so nar- 
row a base, will grow together for some distance from the apex. This 
instrument is far more convenient than a chisel and block. 

The shepherd, on finding a lamb of the right age to mark, goes quietly 
up to it, stopping it by the neck with his crook if it attempts to run away. 
The ewe will come near enough, in a moment or two, to be secured by 
the crook, and then the shepherd notes her number and age, and enters it 
in his pocket-book, and also by what ram tupped. The lamb then is num- 
bered with the notcher, and this and its general appearance is noted down 
in the appropriate columns. If the ewe is too wild to be caught, the lamb 
may be notched — the number of the sire, &c., entered — and the number 
of the ewe subsequently ascertained in the pen. 

I have two forms of Breeding Registers, originally furnished me by my 
lamented friend, the late Mr. Grove. One contains ten columns, the other 
eight. I have adopted the simplest one, omitting two of the columns, 
which leaves the Refjister in the following form : 



BREEDING BEGISTEE^1845. 



No. of 
Dam. 


Tnpp'd by 
Ram No. 


Date of 
Lambing. 


No. of 
Rams. 


Lamb. 
Ewes. 


22—40 


16—39 


May 4. 


1 




50—41 


25—42 


May 4. 




1 


6—42 


7—43 


May 5. 


2&3 




U— 41 


7—43 


May 5. 







Classification and Remarks. 



{ Coarsish — wrinkly — thick, short-legged, and stout — 

I bad crops — ewe plenty of milk, and kind. 

( Fine — thin — long-legged — wool short — will lack 

I constitution — ewe kind — little milk. 

^ Small, but of good shape and fine wool — No. 3 

•? wrinkly and like sire — No. 2 more like dam. — 

( Ewe plenty of milk, but careless. 

f The lamb was born dead, very small. Same last 

) year. This ewe had better be thrown out of 

( breeding. 



The first entry above records the following facts : " The ewe No. 22, 
born in 1840, tupped by the ram No, 16 of 1839, dropped on the 4th of 
May a ram lamb, which was marked No. 1, its character being as described 
under the head of ' Classification and Remarks.' " 

The column of " Remarks" is a very important one, if the minutes are 
made with accuracy and judgment. It should include an enumeration of 
all the prominent characteristics of the lamb, and of the appearances of 
the ewe as a breeder and nurse. These records will, in a single season, 
decide the character of a ram as a stock-getter, and that of the ewe, in a 
year or two, as a breeder and nurse. 

Emasculation and Docking. — These should usually precede washing, 
as at that period the oldest lambs will be about a month old, and it is safer 
to perform the operations when they are a couple of weeks younger. — 
Dry, pleasant weather should be selected. Castration is a simple and safe 

(644) 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



181 



process. Let a man hold the lamb with its back pressed firmly against 
his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in fi'ont in his hands. — 
Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing mem- 
brane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with a knife, if it 
does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle. Some shepherds 
draw both testicles at once with their teeth. It is common to drop a little 
salt into the pouch. Where the weather is very warm, some touch the 
end of the pouch (and that of the tail, after that is cut off) with an oint- 
ment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. In ninety-nine cases out of 
a hundred, however, they will do just as well, here, without any application. 

The tail should be cut off, say one and a half inches from the body, with 
a chisel on the head of a block, the skin being slid up toward the body 
with a finger and thumb, so that it will afterward cover the end of the 
stump. Severed with a knife, the end of the tail being grasped with one 
of the hands in the ordinary way, a naked stump is left which it takes 
some time to heal. 

It may occur to some unused to keeping sheep, that it is unnecessary to 
cut off the tail. If left on, it is apt to collect filth, and, if the sheep purges, 
it becomes an intolerable nuisance. 



"Washing. — This is usually done here about the first of June. The cli- 
mate of the Southern States would admit of its being done earlier. The 
rule should be to wait until the water has acquired suflScient warmth for 
bathing, and until cold rains and storms, and cold nights, are no longer to 
be expected. 

Sheep are usually washed by our best flock-masters in vats. A small 
stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct (formed 
by nailing boards together), and earned until sufficient fall is obtained to 
have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The body of 
water, to do the work fast and well, should be considerable — say 24 inches 
wide, and five or six deep — and the swifter the cuiTent the better. The 
vat should be say 3^ feet deep, and large enough for four sheep to swim 
in it. A yard is built near the vat, and a platform from the gate of the 
yard extends to and encircles the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer 

Fig. 20. 




WASHING APPARATUS. 



from standing in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in 
and out. The cut here given exhibits all the necessary appendages. The 



182 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

yard is built opposite the corners of two fields (1 and 2), to take advantage of 
the angle of one of them (1), to drive the sheep more readily into the yard 
(3). This yard should be large enough to hold the whole flock, if it does not 
exceed 200 ; and the bottom of it, as well as of the smaller yard (5), un- 
less well sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid be- 
coming muddy. If the same establishment is used by a number of flock- 
masters, graveling will be always necessary. As soon as the flock are 
confined in yard 3, the lambs are all immediately caught out from among 
them, and set over the fence into yard 4. This is to prevent their being 
trampled down, as it often happens, by the old sheep, or straying oft' if let 
loose. As many sheep are then driven out of yard 3 into the smaller yard 
5 as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat, 
to open and shut it (or the gate is drawn shut with a chain and weight), and 
two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head of tagging, com- 
mence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of "wetting." 
As soon as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an in- 
stant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose.* The vat should, of course, be 
in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus 
be passed over, and again driven round through field 1 into yard 3, where 
they should stand, say, an hour, before washing commences. There is 
a large per centage of potasht in the wool oil, which acts upon the dirt, 
independently of the favorable eflect which would result from thus 
soaking it for some time with water alone. If washed soon after a good 
shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with ; and it is not absolutely 
necessary, perhaps, in any case. If the water is warm enough to keep the 
sheep in it for the requisite period, they may be got clean by washing 
without any previous wetting — though the snowy whiteness of fleece which 
tells so on the purchaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the 
latter way. Little time is saved by omitting "wetting," as it takes propor- 
tionably longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept such 
a length of time in the water at once. 

When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are 
plunged into the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are 
Avashed. But this should not be done, unless the water is very warm, and 
the washers are uncommonly quick and expert. On the whole, it is rather 
an objectionable practice, for few animals suffer as much from the effects 
of a chill as sheep. If they have been previously wetted, it is wholly un- 
necessary. When the sheep are in the water, the two washers commence 
kneading the wool with their hands about the breech, belly, &:c., (the 
dirtier parts,) and they then continue to turn the sheep so that the descend- 
ing current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. As soon as 
the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running entirely 
clear, each washer seizes his own by the fore parts, plunges it deep in the 
vat, and taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently 
down on its breech on the platform. He then, if the sheep is old or 
weak, (and it is well in all cases,) presses out some of the water from the 
wool, and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be adverted 
to, lets it go. There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not cov- 
ered with sod, being graveled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures 
from washing to shearing — not where they can come in contact with 



* Where there are conveniences for bo doing, this process may bo more easily performed by driving the 
sheep through a stream deep enough to compel them to swim. But swimming the compact-fleeced, line- 
wcoled sheep for any leiij^th of time, as is practiced with the Long-Wools in England, will not properly 
cleanse the wool for shearing 

t Vauquelin, quoted by Youatt, says that it consists mostly of soapy matter with a basis of potash; 2. 
Caib. of potash; 3. Acetate of potash; 4. Lime; 5. Muriate of potash 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 183 

the ground, burnt logs, &c. — and they should not be driven over dusty 
roads. 

The washers should be strong and careful men, and protected as they 
are from anything but the water running over the sides of the vat, they 
can labor several hours without inconvenience, and without drinking 
whisky until they cease to know whether a sheep is well washed or well 
treated, as was the bad old fashion. Two hundred sheep will employ two 
expert men not over half a day, and I have known this rate much ex- 
ceeded. 

It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but 
even as a matter of profit, to get the wool clean and of a snowy whiteness. 
It will always sell for more than enough extra, in this condition, to offset 
against the increased labor and the diminution in weight. 

Mr. Lawrence wrote me, a few years since, that the average loss in 
American Saxon wool, in scouring, (after being washed on the back,) was 
36 per cent., and in American Merino 42|^ per cent. ! 

Cutting the Hoofs. — The hoofs of fine-wooled sheep grow rapidly, 
turn up in front and under at the sides, and must be clipped as often as 
once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to 
the sheep, and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds 
dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from 
being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural 
movements of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the 
hoof in its proper shape. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and the 
difficulty of curing it — and in England it is thought to originate the 
disease. 

It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the time 
of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs, but 
then the sheep must be subsequently turned on its back to pare off the 
projecting and curling-under side crust. If the weather be dry, or the 
sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, (as at shearing,) the hoofs 
are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty — and this is in- 
creased by the grit and dirt which adheres to the sole, and immediately 
takes the edge off from the knife. 

The above periods are ill chosen, and the methods slow and bungling. 
It is particularly improper to submit heavily pregnant ewes to all this un- 
necessary handling at the time of tagging. 

When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its 
rump on the platform, the gate-keeper 

advances with a pair of toe-nvppers, and F'g- 21- 

the washer presents each foot sepa- 
rately, pressing the toes together so 
they can be severed at a single clip. 

The nippers shown in the cut, can be toi>nippers. 

made by any blacksmith who can tem- 
per an ax or chisel. They must be made strong, with handles a little 
more than a foot long, the rivet being of half-inch iron aiid confined with 
a nut, so that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting edge 
should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it 
from being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest ho(>fs are 
severed with a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened 
knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then 
grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to 
each foot, the side crust (being free from dirt, and soaked almost as soft as 




184 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



a cucumber,) is reduced to the level of the soles. Two expert men will 
go through these processes in less time than it will take to read this de- 
scription of them ! 

The closer the paring and clipping, the better, if blood is not drawn. 
An occasional sheep may I'equiie clipping again in the fall. 

Time between Washing and Shearing. — This depends altogether on 
circumstances. From four to six days of bright warm weather is suffi- 
cient. If cold and rainy, or cloudy, moi'e time must elapse. I have known 
the wool to remain in an unfit condition to shear a fortnight after washing. 
The rule is, the water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil 
of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctuous feel and 
a lively, glittering look. If you shear it when dry, like cotton, before the 
oil has exuded, you cheat yourself, and the wool will not keep so well for 
long periods.* If you leave it until it gets too oily, you cheat the nianu- 
facturei", or what more often happens, you lose on the price. 

Shearing — Is always done, in this country, on the threshing-floors of 
our barns, sometimes on low platforms, but more commonly on the floor 
itself The following cut represents a common Northern barn properly 
arranged for this purpose. 




SHEARING ARRANGEMENTS. 



On the threshing-floor, three men are seen shearing — twc of them using 
a low table or platform, say 18 or 20 inches high. The " bay "t (1, 2) 
nearest the eye is divided by a temporary fence, one part (1) being used 
for the yarding of the sheep, and the other (2) for doing up the wool, &c. 
The inclosure 1 should communicate by a door with another and larger 
yard outside of the barn. Both of these should be well littered down with 



* Ir is also very difficult to thnist the shears through this dry wool in shearing. 

t The room for storine hay, crnin. &c., which is always found on one. and sometimes on each side of the 
threshin;;fioor in a Northern bain, is provincially termed u " buy " — aud the low division between this and 
the threshing-floor a " breastwork." 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 185 

straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean 
while shearing. No chaff, or other substances which will stick in the wool, 
should be used for this purpose. When the dew has dried off from the 
sheep, on the morning chosen for shearing, a portion of the flock sufiicient 
to last the sheai'ers half a day, is driven into the outside yard, and a con- 
venient number into the bay (1). An assistant catches the sheep, lifts 
them off from the floor as already directed, and delivers them at the door 
through the " breastwork " (3) to each shearer. The shearer before taking 
the sheep, picks oft" any loose straws sticking to its wool, and if dung ad- 
heres to any of the feet, brushes it off with a little besom formed of twigs, 
hung up near the door for that purpose. The shearer then takes the sheep 
to his stand, and commences shearing. 

The floor or tables used for shearing should be planed or worn perfectly 
smooth, so that they will not hold dirt or catch the wool. They all should 
^"e thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to shearing. 
It is the catcher's business to keep the floor constantly swept, dung re- 
moved, &c. Having a new stand or place swept for the shearer who has 
just finished his sheep, he catches him another, and then clears up the 
stand pi'eviously occupied. He first lifts the fleece, gathers it up so that 
It shall not be torn or drawn asunder, and turning his arms so as to invert 
It, {i. e., bring the roots of the wool downward,) deposits it on the Jblding- 
tahle [i). He then picks up the "fribs" (small loose locks) left on the 
floor, which are deposited in a basket or on a corner of the table. Lastly, 
he sweeps the spot clean, to be again occupied by the shearer. An active 
fellow will tend four shearers, and do up the fleeces. But he should not 
be hurried too much, or he cannot give sufficient time to doing up. A 
small boy or two are handy to pick up fribs, sweep, &c. 

If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging or other causes, 
they should first be caught out, to prevent them from dirtying the others. 

It is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical instructions 
which would guide an entire novice in skillfully shearing a sheep. Prac- 
tice is requisite. The following directions from the Ainerican Shepherd,* 
are correct, and are as plain, perhaps, as they can be made : 

" The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its 
rump, and himselt in a posture with one (his right) knee on a cushion, and the back of the ani- 
mal resting against his left thigh. He gi-asps the shears about half-way from the point to the 
bow, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords him better command of the points. 
He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and proceeding downward, all upon 
the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both thighs to the 
edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the 
breast, front, and both sides of the neck — but not yet the back of it — and also the poll or 
fore part, and top of the head. Now the 'jacket is opened ' of the sheep, and its position 
and that of the shearer is changed, by being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shear'^r 
resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore quarter of the animal, to pre- 
vent any straggling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence on- 
ward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned on to the other 
side, in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleece from being torn, and the 
shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near to the 
door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary locV 
anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely necessaiy for him to remove from his stand 
to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece-wool. 
In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the skin as possible, not lower the 
points too much, nor cut more than fi-om one to two inches at a clip, frequently not so much, 
depending on the part and compactness of the wool." 

In addition to the above, I would remark that the wool should be cut 
off as close as conveniently practicable, and even. It may be cut too close, 
so that the sheep can scarcely avoid " sun-scald," but this is very unusual. 

* Pages 179, 180. 



186 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

If the wool is left ridgy and uneven, it betrays that want of workmanship 
which is so distasteful to every good farmer.* Great care should be taken 
not to cut the wool twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do. 
It is a great damage to the wool. It is done by cutting too far from the 
point of the shears, and suflering the points to get too elevated. Every 
time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before cut ofl" by the points, 
say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed. 
To keep the fleece entire, so important to its good appearance when done 
up, (and therefore to its salableness,) it is very essential that the sheep be 
held easily fo?- itself, so that it will not sti'uggle violently. To hold it still 
by main strength, no man can do, and shear it well. The posture of the 
shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, 
so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece, but it should 
not be confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be constantly 
kicking and struggling. Heavy-handed, careless men, therefore, always 
complain of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, 
may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the 
leg on which the shearer kneels, but the lazy or brutal shearer who lets 
his leg rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which the 
animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even perhaps 
to draw its breath ! 

Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day, 
and a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one- 
half that number. It is the last process in the world which should be hur- 
ried, as the shearer will soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to 
pay for his day's wages. 

It has been mentioned that but enough sheep should be yarded at once 
for half a day's shearing. The reason for this is that they shear much 
more easily, and there is less liability of cutting the skin, when they are 
distended with food, than when their bellies become flabby and collapsed 
for the want of it. This precaution, however, is often necessarily omitted 
in showery weather. It is very convenient to have the outside pen which 
communicates with the "bay," covered. On my farm, it is one of the 
regular sheep-houses. If it is showery over night, or showers come up on 
the day of shearing, a couple of hundred sheep may be run in and kept 
dry. And they can be let out to feed occasionally during the day on 
short grass. If let out in long wet grass, their bellies will become wetted. 
Wool ought not to be sheared, and must not be done up, with any water 
in it. 

Shearing Lambs, and Shearing Sheep Semi-Annually. — Shearing 
lambs is, in my judgment, every way an abominable and unprofitable prac- 
tice — in this climate, at least. The lamb will give you the same wool at a 
year old, and you strip it of its natural protection from cold when it is 
young and tender, for the paltry gain of the interest on a pound or a pound 
and a half of wool for six months — not more than two or three cents — and 
this all covered by the expense of shearing. 

I am aware that it is customary, in many parts of the South, to shear 
grown sheep twice a year; and there may be a reason for it where they 
receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half- 
year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes, 
thorns, &c., if left for a longer period. But when sheep are inclosed, and 

* 1 hold that man is noihalfa. farmer who has not a dash of the esthetic mixed up with his utilitarianism. 
Profit should not oftt^n be sacrifiired to appcarani-ps, hut where they are stj-ictly compatible, he who disre- 
gards tha latter betrays a sordid and uncultivated mind. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



187 




FOLDING-TABLE. 



treated as domestic animals, there may be less barbarity in fall-shearing 
them than in the case of tender lambs, but I cannot conceive of any better 
reason for it than in the former case, on the score of utility. Any gain 
resulting from it cannot pay the additional expense it occasions. 

DoiNG-up Wool. — The fleece has been deposited on the " folding table," 
and he whose business it is to do it up, first proceeds to spread it out, the 
outer ends upward, bringing every part to its natural relative position. — 
The table, with a 

fleece spread out on ^*s- 23. 

it, is represented in 
fig. 23. The table 
should be large — 
say five feet wide 
and eight long — that, 
if necessary, sevei'al 
unsprcad fleeces may 
be put upon it at the 
same time, and still 
give room for spread- 
ing one. It should 
be about three feet 
high. After the fleece 
is spread, dung, burs, and all other extraneous substances are carefully re- 
moved from it with a pair of shears. It is then pressed together with the 
hands, so that it will cover but little if any more space than it would oc- 
cupy on the skin of the animal, if that was placed unstretched on the table. 
About a quarter of the fleece, lengthwise, or from head to tail, (represented 
by 1 in the above cut,) is then turned or folded in (inverting it,) toward 
the middle. The opposite side (2) is next folded inward in the same, way, 
leaving the fleece in a long strip, say 18 inches wide. The forward end 
(3) is then folded toward the breech, to a point (represented by dotted 
line) corresponding with the point of the shoulder. The breech (4) is next 
folded toward the head. The fleece now presents an oblong square rep- 
resented by 5 and 6. On the breech, in a small, compact bunch — so they 
can be, subsequently, readily sepa- 
rated from the fleece — the clean fribs 
are placed. They do not include 
" trimmings," (the wool from the 
shanks,) which should not be done up 
in the fleeces. The fribs may be laid 
in at some earlier stage of the folding 
— but if thrown on top of the fleece, 
as is very customary, before it is fold- 
ed at all, they shoio through, if the 
latter gets strained apart, as it fre- 
quently happens in the process of roll- 
ing — and being coarser and perhaps 
less white than the fine shoulder wool, 
they injure the appearance of the 
fleece. The fleece is now folded to- 
geth'?r by turning 5 over on to 6, and 
the tyer cai'efully sliding it around on the table with his arms, so that 
the shoulder shall be toward him, it appears as in fig. 24, ready to 
go into the wool-trough. The wool-trough, which is above represented 



Fig. 24. 




WOOL-TROUGH. 



188 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



Fig. 25. 




with one of its sides off, to exhibit the interior arrangement, should form 
a part of the table, and should be about 9^ inches wide and 9 deep, and 
its length corresponding with the width of the table, would be five feet. 
Near its back end, and about one-third of its width from each side, gimlet 
holes are bored just large enough for the passage of ordinary wool-twine. 
Two balls of twine are placed in a vessel beneath, the ends passed through 
the holes, and the whole length of the trough, and are fastened in fi-ont by 
being drawn into two slits formed by sawing a couple of inches into the 
bottom of the trough. The holes and slits should be small enough, so that 
the twine will be kept drawn straight between them. 

The tyer placing his hands and arms (to the elbow) on each side of the 
fleece folded as above, now slides it into the trough. There are two 
methods of having it lie in the trough, represented by the following cuts. 
That on the left is the more ordinary, but not 
the best method. It will bring to the two ends 
of the done-up fleece (the parts most seen in the 
wool-room) the ridge of the back and two lines 
half way down each side of the sheep. The for- 
mer is sometimes a little weathei'-beaten, and if 
any hay-seeds have fastened in the fleece, they 
show most on the back.* And the two lower 
lines are a little below the choicest wool. — 
Placing it in the trough as in the right-hand figure, rolling would bring 
both ends of the fleece from the wool between four and five inches from 
the ridge of the back, the choicest part of the fleece. Besides, the edges 
of the breech fold, which is not so fine as the shoulder, which sometimes 
show by the first method of rolling, are always concealed by the last. 

The wool being in the trough, the tyer steps round to the back end of 
it, and commences rolling the fleece from the breech to the shoulder. He 
rolls it as tightly as possible, pressing it down and exerting all the strength 
of his hands — minding, however, not to tear the outside fold — or strain it 
so apart as to exhibit the outer ends of the next inside layer or fold. 
When the rolling is completed, he keeps it tight by resting the lower part 
of his left arm across it, reaches over with the right, and withdrawing one 
of the ends of the twine from the slit, places it in the left hand. Then 
seizing the twine on the other side of the fleece with his right hand, he 
draws the twine once about the fleece with his whole strength, and ties it 
in a hard or square knot. The fleece will then keep its position, and the 
other twine is tied in the same way. The twines should be drawn with a 
force that would cut through the skin of a tender hand in a few moments.t 
The twines are then cut within an inch of the knots, with a 
pair of shears. The fleece is slid out of the end of the 
trough, when it will be a solid, glittering mass of snowy 
wool, in the shape shown in the cut on the right. If well 
and tightly done up, however, the divisions given on the 
end of the fleece, in the cut, to exhibit the foldings, will 
not be perceptible — and nothing but an unbroken mass of 
the choicest wool of the fleece. "' 

The twine should be of flax or hemp, and of the diameter of ordinary 
sized hardware twine. Cotton might do, if smooth and hard enough so 
that no particles of it could become incoi-porated with the wool — in which 
event it does not separate from the wool in any of the subsequent processes, 
and receiving a different color from the dyes, spots the surface of the cloth. 



Fie. 26. 




* Hay-seed, or rather its chaff, will not wash entirely out of wool. 

t It ifl customary with some tyers to wear a glove on the right hand — or cots on the two fore-fingen; 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 189 

It is scarcely necessary to remark that it is considered perfectly fair by 
the purchaser, to take all the pains above recommended, to " put the best 
Bide out " in doing up wool, provided every fleece is done up by itself. He 
expects it, and graduates his prices accordingly. He who neglects it, 
therefore, cheats himself. But to do up coarser fleeces, or any parts of 
them, in finer ones — put in " trimmings " — leave in dung — or use unne- 
cessary twine — are all base frauds. Sometimes the careless sheep-owner 
will have his wool filled with burs, which he cannot or will not remove. 
In that case he is bound to unequivocally apprise the buyer of the fact, 
and allow him to open fleeces until satisfied of the precise extent of the 
evil. 

Storing "Wool. — "Wool should be stored in a clean, tight, dry room. It 
is better that it should be an upper room, for reasons presently to be given, 
and it should be plastered, to exclude dust, vermin, insects, &c. Rats and 
mice love to build their nests in it, to which they will carry grain chaff" and 
other substances, injuring much wool — and it is singular that if accessible 
to the common bumble-bee, numbers of their nests will be found in it. A 
north and pretty strong light is preferable for a wool-room. 

When the wool-tyer removes each fleece from the trough, he places it 
in a long, high basket, capable of holding a dozen fleeces, and it is imme- 
diately carried to the wool-room — or he piles it on the clean floor in the 
inclosure in which his table stands, to be subsequently carried away. In 
either case, the fleeces are not thrown down promiscuously, which injui'es 
their shape, but are laid regularly one above another, on their sides. In 
the wool-room it is laid in the same way in smooth, straight north and 
south rows (supposing the light to be let in from the noi'th) with alleys 
between, in which a man can pass to inspect the wool. The rows ought 
not, perhaps, to be more than two deep, so that the end of ei'cr?/ fleece can 
be examined, but as it cannot be piled up more than about four fleeces 
high in this way, without liability of falling, it is customary to make the 
rows three or four fleeces deep — laying the lower ones a little wide, so 
that the pile may slightly recede as it goes up. In this way they may be 
piled six fleeces high. Where the character of the flock is known, or that 
of the seller relied on, it makes little difference. It is considered fairest 
to pile the fleeces without any discrimination as to quality, in the wool- 
room. 

Sacking Wool. — When the wool is sold, or when it must be sent away 
to find a market, it is put up in bales nine feet long, formed of 40-inch 
" burlaps." The mouth of the sack is sowed, with twine, round a strong 
hoop (riveted together with ii-on, and kept for the purpose,) and the body 
of it is let dovni through a circular aperture in the floor of the wool-room.* 
The hoop rests on the edge of the aperture, and the sack swings clear of 
the floor beneath. A man enters the sack, and another passes the fleeces 
down to him. After covering the bottom with a layer, he places a fleece 
in the center and forces down others around it, and so on to the top, which 
is then sowed up. Each fleece should be placed regularly with the hands, 
and then stamped down as compactly as possible, so that the bale when 
completed shall be hard and well filled in every part. The bulk of a given 
weight of wool will be greatly affected by the care with which this pro- 
cess is performed. 

Those who do not expect buyers to come and look at their wool, sack 
it immediately after shearing. A temporary scaff"olding is erected near 
* It ia to secure this conTenience that the wool-room is best placed on the second floor. 



190 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



the wool as deposited by the tyer, and one man tosses up fleeces to a sec- 
ond, who catches them and passes them down to the man in the sack. A 
light frame, to suspend the sack, and part way up it a standing-place for 
the catcher, would be a convenient appendage to the establishment of a 
wool-grower who does not store his wool in a wool-room. With a set of 
stairs up to his midway standing-place, an active fellow would keep the 
treader supplied, without any assistance. 

In the absence of any agreement, the price of wool, delivered at ihe 
residence of the purchaser, does not include the cost of sacks and sacking. 
It is customary, however, for growers of small parcels, and those who 
keep no conveniences for sacking, to carry their wool tied up in sheets, 
&c., and deliver it to the purchaser at the nearest village or other point, 
where he has made arrangements for sacking. 



Selection. — The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding 
all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and what the 
points are to which reference should be had in establishing that standard, 
have already been sufliiciently adverted to in discussing the principles of 
breeding. The time of shearing is by far the most favorable one for the 
flockmaster to make his selection. He should be present on the shearing- 
floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off". If 
there is a fault about it, he will then discover it better than at any other 
time. A glance, too, reveals to him every fault of form, previously con- 
cealed wholly or in part, by the wool, as soon as the newly shorn sheep 
is permitted to stand on its feet. He takes down the number and age of 
the sheep on his tablet, and if not sufficiently defective in form or quality 
of fleece to call for its condemnation, in a pair of scales suspended near the 
wool-tyer's table, he determines the weight of the fleece. If this, too, is 
satisfactory, he marks " retained " opposite the sheep's number on his tab- 
let. If more or less defective in any point, he weighs this against the 
other points — taking also into consideration the age of the sheep, its char- 
acter as a breeder, its nursing properties, quietness of disposition, &c. — 
and then, in view oi all these points, the question of retention or exclusion 
is settled. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently kept until she dies of 
old age. A poorish nurse or breeder would be excluded for the lightest 
fault, and so on. I have been in the habit, for a number of years, of using 
a book kept for this purpose, each page being ruled and headed thus : 



27, '42 
30, '44 



Qual. of Fleece. 



Wt. of Fleece. 



Conclusion. 



The figures in the first column signify No. 27 of the year 1842, and No. 
30 of the year 1844. The letters in the succeeding columns stand for the 
words " prime," " fair," " ordinary," and " bad " — marking the gradations 
of quality. The letters in the last column signify " retained," or " ex- 
cluded." Such a record will lead to far greater accuracy than by any 
other method, and it is extremely valuable for pui-poses hereafter to be 
stated. 

If the sheep are not numbered, the flock -master should note each appear- 
ance, as above directed, have the sheep held by the neck by an assistant, 
or discharged by the shearer into a small pen at the door for that purpose, 
until the fleece is weighed, and then if he decides to exclude it, he gives 
it a small mark on the shoulder, consisting of Venetian Red and hog's lard, 
(conveniently applied with a brush or cob.) 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 191 

Marking Sheep. — The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or 
mistakes may occur. Every owner of sheep should be provided with a 
marking instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive 
mark, such as a small circle, oval, triangle, square, &c., at a single stroke, 
and with uniformity, on the sheep. It has been customary here, to have 
the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminated by 
wood. But one made by cutting a type or raised letter (or character) on 
the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be 
better. If the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a 
little too deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the 
wood, as from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and 
spoil the appearance of the mark ; and if the pigment be applied hot, the 
foi-mer will not, like the latter, get heated, and inci-ease the danger of 
burning the hide. Various pigments are used. Many boil tar until it 
will assume a glazed, hard consistency, when cold, and give it a brilliant 
black color by stirring in a little lamp-black when boiling. It is applied 
when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright, 
conspicuous mark the year round. I have always used this, though the 
manufacturer would prefer the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, 
as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. I boil it in 
a high-sided iron vessel (to prevent it from taking fire) on a small furnace 
or chafing-dish near where it is to be used. When cool enough, forty or 
fift.y sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from 
time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. The rump is a better place 
to mark than the side. The mark is about as conspicuous on the former, 
under any circumstances, and it is more so when the sheep are huddled in 
a pen, or when they are running away from you. And should any wool 
be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on the 
side. It is customary to distinguish ewes from wethers by marking them 
on different sides of the rump. 

Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer. 
It consumes much less time to do it at one job, after the shearing is com- 
pleted ; and it is necessary to take the latter course, if a hot pigment is 
used, 

Cold Storms after Shearing. — These sometimes destroy sheep, in 
this latitude, soon after shearing — particularly the delicate Saxons. I have 
known forty or fifty perish out of a single flock, ffom one night's expo- 
sure. The remedy, or rather the preventive, is to house them, or in de- 
fault of the necessary fixtures to effect this, to drive them into dense for- 
ests. I presume, however, this would be a calamity of rare occurrence in 
the " sunny South." 

Sun-Scald — Might be more common. When sheep are sheared close 
in very hot weather — have no shade in their pastures — and particularly 
where they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over 
burning and dusty roads, their backs are so scorched by the sun that the 
wool comes off. It is not common, however, here. You may see one 
such in a flock of a hundred. Let alone, the matter is not a serious one, 
but the application of refuse lard to the back will accelerate the cure, and 
the starting of the wool. 

Ticks. — These, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble sheep 
in the wintei', and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After shear- 
ing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep soon drive off 



192 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 




DIPPING-BOX. 



the tick, and it takes refuge in the long wool of the lamb. "Wait a fort- 
night after shearing, to allow all to make this transfer of residence. Then 
boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks 
beyond a peradventure. This may be readily tested by experiment. 
Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, &c., 
may be made to answer for 100 lambs. The decoction is poured into a 
deep, narrow box, kept for 

this purpose, and which has f^'S- ^'^■ 

an inclined shelf one one side, 
covered with a wooden grate, 
as shown in the cut. One 
man holds the lamb by the 
hind legs, another clasps the 
fore-legs in one hand, and 
shuts the other about the 
nostrils to prevent the liquid 
entering them, and then the 
lamb is entirely immersed. 
It is immediately lifted out, 
laid on one side on the grate, 
and the water squeezed out 
of its wool. It is then tui'ned 
over and squeezed on the 
other side. The grate con- 
ducts the fluid back into the 
box. If the lambs are regu- 
larly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. 

The effect of tobacco water in scab, will be hereafter adverted to. 

Maggots. — Rams with horns growing closely to their heads, are very 
liable to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on 
the surrounding parts gets broken in fighting, and these, if not removed, 
soon destroy the sheep. Both remedy and preventive is boiled tar — or the 
marking substance heretofore described. Put it under the horns, at the 
time of marking, and no trouble will ever arise fi'om this cause. Some- 
times when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres 
about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes 
miserably. Preventive : remove the dung. Remedy : remove the dung 
and maggots, the latter by touching them with a little turpentine, and 
then apply sulphur and grease to the excoriated surface. 

Maggot flies, says Blacklock, sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs 
of the long, open-wooled English sheep, and the maggots during the few 
days before they assume the pupa state, so tease and irritate the animal, 
that fever and death are the consequence. Tar and turpentine, or butter 
and sulphur, smeared over the parts are given as the preventives. The 
Merino and Saxon are exempt from these attacks. 

Shortening the Horns. — A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes 
so presses in upon the side of the head or neck, that it is necessary to shave 
or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal effects. The 
2)oi?it of the horn of the ram and ewe both not unfrequently turn in so 
that they will grow into the flesh and sometimes into the eye, unless 
shortened. The toe-nippers will often suflnce on the thin extremity of a 
horn, but if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking time is the best 
one to attend to this. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 193 

, Division of Flocks. — It i's customary at, or soon after shearing, to make 
those divisions in large flocks, which utiHty demands. It is better to have 
not to exceed two hundred sheep I'un together in the pastures, though the 
number might perhaps be safely increased to three hundred, if the range 
is extensive. Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off, should be kept sep- 
arate from the nursing-ewes, and if the flock is sufficiently numerous to 
require a third division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year- 
old ewes and wethers and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better in 
all cases to separate the rams from all the other sheep, at the time of 
shearing, and to inclose them in a particularly well-fenced field. If put 
even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome, and when cool nights ar- 
rive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride 
the wethers. The Merino ram is a quiet animal compared with the com- 
mon-wooled one, but poor fences, or fences half the time down, will tempt 
him to jump, and if once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome 
as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or 
"poking" is resorted to — either of which causes the animal to waste his 
flesh and strength, and are the causes of frequent accidents. 

Hoppling, Clogging, &:c. — Hoppling is done by sowing the ends of a 
leathern strap (broad at the extremities so that it will not cut into the 
flesh) to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints — leaving the legs 
at about the natural distance apart. Clogging is fastening a billet of wo(jd 
to the fore leg by a leather strap. Yoking is fastening two rams two or 
three feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of 
timber, say two by three inches in size. Poking is done by inserting a 
bow in a shoi't bit of light timber, into which bit (worn on the under side 
of the neck) a rod is inserted which projects a couple of feet in front of 
the sheep. These, and similar devices, to prevent rams scaling fences, may 
be employed as a last resort, by those improvident farmers' who prefer by 
such troublesome, injurious, and at best, insecure means, to guard against 
that viciousness which they might, so much more easily, have prevented 
from being acquired. 

Dangerous Rams. — From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted 
and played with when young — and sometimes without any other stimulant 
than a naturally vicious temper — rams occasionally become very trouble- 
some by their propensity to attack men or cattle. I know of one for 
which his owner has refused $250, which will permit no man to enter the 
field with him without making an immediate onset on him. I have known 
several that would knock, down the ox or horse which presumed to dis- 
pute the possession of a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known 
to have acquired this propensity should at once be hooded, and, if not 
valuable, at the proper season converted into a wether by " cording." But 
the courage thus manifested, is usually the concomitant of great strength 
and vigor of constitution — and of a powerfully developed frame. If good 
in other particulars, it is a pity to lose the services of such an animal. I 
have in several such instances hooded them, by covering their faces with 
leather in such a manner that they could only see a little backward and 
downward. They must then, however, be kept apart from the flock of 
rams, or they will soon be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot 
see to escape. 

It sometimes happens that a usually quiet tempered ram will suddenly 
exhibit some pugnacity when you are salting or feeding the flock. If you 
turn to run, you are immediately knocked down, and the ram learns, at 

2B 



194 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to exercise 
it. The ram skiving his blow from the summit of the parietal and the pos- 
terior portion of the frontal bones on the top of the head, (and not from the 
forehead,) couches his head so low when he makes his onset, that he does 
not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right hne, and a 
few quick motions to the right and left enable you to escape him. Run in 
upon him, as he dashes by you, with pitchfork, club, or boot-heel — punish- 
ing him severely by blows, (about the head if the club is used,) and givino- 
him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed.* 

Fences. — Poor fences will teach ewes and wethers to jump, as well as 
rams, and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high 
fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole 
flock, and if one by chance is bought in, it should be immediately hoppled 
or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. 

Salt. — Salt, in my judgment, is indispensable to the health of sheep, 
particularly in the summer — and I know not a flock-master among the hun- 
dreds, nay, thousands with whom I am acquainted, who differs with me in 
this opinion. It is common to give it once a week while the sheep are at 
grass. 

It is still better to give them free access to salt at all times, by keeping 
it in a covered box, open on one side, like the following: 

A large hollow log, 
with holes cut along the Fig. 28. 

side, for the insertion 
of the beads of the sheep 
will make a respectable 
substitute. A sheep hav- 
ing free access to salt at 
all times, will never eat 
too much, and it will take 
its supply when and in 
what quantities Nature 
demands, instead of eat- 
ing voraciously at stated 

periods, as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it do. When fed but 
once a week, it is better to have a stated day, so that it will not be forgot- 
ten, and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones, though if laid in little 
handsfull on the grass, very little will be lost. 

Tar. — This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for 
sheep. The nose of the sheep is smeared with it, and it is licked and 
swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it 
to trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to 
get unusually salt hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and 
then scatter salt on it, so that both shall be consumed together. Applied 
to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, I have no doubt that it is advan- 
tageous in catarrhs — and put on the same place, at .:he proper periods, it 
may perhaps, by its odor, repel the visitations of the fly ( Q^tstris ovis), the 
eggs of which produce the " grub in the head." As a medicine it maybe 
valuable, and even as a detergent in the case specified, but as a condiment 




SALTING-BOX. 



* 'J'his iriRj' be pronounced harsh " measure for measure," and some may think it would tend to increase 
the viciousness of the animal. Hcpeated iiisiances have proved the contrary to me. And if their mastery 
is once acknowledged, it is never forgotten by them. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 195 

fiimply, for a perfectly healthy animal, I confess I have no confidence in its 
utility. 

Water. — Water is not indispensable in the summer pastures, the dews 
and the succulence of the feed answering as a substitute. But my impres- 
sion is decided that free access to water is advantageous to sheep, particu- 
larly to those having lambs ; and I should consider it a matter of import- 
ance on a sheep farm, to arrange the pastures, if practicable, so as to 
bring water into each of them. 

Shade. — No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek 
shade in hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot 
sun is pouring down on their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as 
a matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot 
summer months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail 
fence. Forest-trees are the most natural and best shades, and it is as con- 
trary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep- 
walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west 
sides of the pasture, will form a passable substitute for trees. But in the 
absence of all these, and of buildings of any kind, a shade can be cheaply 
constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner as the sheds of the 
same materials for winter shelter, which will be described in my next Letter. 

Weaning Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned at four months old. It is 
better for them, and much better for their dams. The lambs when taken 
away should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that 
they may not hear each other's bleatings. The lambs when in hearing of 
their dams, continue restless much longer, and they make constant and 
frequently successful efforts to crawl thi-ough the fences which separate 
them. One or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them to 
teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat 
grain, &c., out of troughs when winter approaches. 

The lambs when weaned should be put on the freshest and tenderest 
feed. I have usually reserved for mine the grass and clover sown, the pre- 
ceding spring, on the grain fields which were seeded down. 

The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry 
feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked to, once or twice, 
and should the bags of any be found much distended, the milk should be 
drawn and the bag washed for a little time in cold water. But on short 
feed, they rarely give much trouble in this particular. When properly 
dried off', they should be put on good feed to recruit, and get in condition 
for winter. 

Fall Feeding. — In the North, the grass often gets very short by the 
10th or 15th of November, and it has lost much of its nutritiousness from 
repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, though no snow has yet 
fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light daily foddering of bright hay — 
or a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or twelve days which 
precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well 
as at any other time during the year. I have usually fed oats in the bun- 
dle, or threshed oats, (about a gill to the head,) in the feeding-troughs, 
carried to the fields for that purpose. 

The Crook. — This implement has been several times alluded to as a 
convenient one for catching sheep. It is made in the form exhibited iii 



]9G 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



Fia. 29. 



the cut, of -l-inch round iron, drawn smaller toward the point — and the 
point made safe by a knob. The other end is furnished 
with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet 
long. The manner of using it is thus described in Mr. Ste- 
phens's admirable " Book of the Farm " : 

" The hind-leg is hooked in at a, from behind the sheep, and it fills up 
the narrow part beyond a, while passing along it until it reaches the loop, 
when the animal is caught by the hock, and when secured, its foot ea- 
sily slips through the loop. Some caution ia required in using the crook, 
for should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away, the mo- 
ment it feels the crook the leg will be drawn forcibly through the narrow 
part, and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop 
as to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lameness for 
some days. On first embracing the leg, the crook should be drawn 
quickly toward you, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as 
high up as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break oS', and be- 
iug secure, its struggles will cease the moment your hand seizes the leg." 




SHEPHERD S 
CROOK. 



No flock-master should be without this impleinent, as it 
saves a vast deal of yarding, running, &c., and leads to 
a prompt examination of every imj^roper or suspicious ap- 
pearance, and a timely application of remedy or preven- 
tive — which would often be deferred if the whole flock had 
to be driven to a distant yard, to enable the shepherd to 
catch a particular sheep. 

Dexterity in the use of the crook is speedily acquired by any one ; and 
if a flock are properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught 
by it, at salting-time — or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom 
the flock are familiar. But it is at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs 
require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly ser- 
viceable. For this purpose, at this time alone, it will pay for itself ten 
times over in a single season, in saving time, to say nothing of the advan- 
tage of the sheep. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 197 



LETTER XIII. 

WINTER MAJSTAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 

Use of Rams — proper age, number, &c. — eelecting ewes for — different methods of coupling — way to treat 
rams.. -Division of Flocks for Wintf^r. . .Tlie Hospital.. .Yards — wlien necessary .. .Feuding-Raclis — vari- 
ous plans o'.'- — the Box Rack — the Hole Rack — the Sparred Rack — the Hopper Rack — their respective ad- 
vantages — improvements suggested.. .Troughs.. .Grain.Boxes.. .Barns and Sheds — necessity of shelter at 
the North — the common Northern Sheep-Barn.. .Stells — the Outside Stell — Ancient Steils — Inside Circular 
Stell— Circular Stell fitted up vnih racks.. .Tree-Coverts.. .Cheap Sheds — fitted between stacks, barracks, 
&c... Value of Barracks for tho Presei-vation of Fodder.. .The Main Sheep-Barn of the Farm or Plantation, 
with Sheariug-Floor, &c. — arrangements for breeding-ewes. . .Feeding sheep in yards with other stock — 
improper — reasons.. -Hay-Holders.. .Winter Dry Feed for Sheep — Variations in Feed — German views on 
this subject — proper kinds of fodder — Boussingault's Table of the Nutritive Equivalents of different kinds 
of Fodders . . . Etfect of Food in the Production of Wool — De Reaumur's Table showing the Effects of Food 
in this particular... Effect of Food in producing Fat and Muscle... Fattening Wethers in the North.. -Feed- 
ing Grain to Store-Sheep in Winter — when practiced at the North — economy of so doing — kinds of grain 
preferred — necessity of regularity in quantity — difficulty of raising the condition of poor sheep in the win- 
ter.. -Feeding Roots, Browse, &c — Roots a Substitute for Grain — to what sheep they may be fed — Hem- 
lock Browse — when and in what manner useful — substitutes for... Winter Feed of Breeding-Ewes... Ne- 
cessity of regularity in the times of feeding sheep... Salt... Water. 

Dear Sir : As the turning out of the rams usually takes place, here, on 
the first day of winter, I will describe the proper accompanying aiTange- 
ments, as the first step in winter management. 

Use of Rams. — The period of gestation in the ewe averages five months. 
Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and even 
longer. The lambs of very old rams are not supposed to be as vigorous 
as those of youngish or middle-aged ones, but where rams have not been 
overtasked, and have been properly fed, I confess I have been able to dis- 
cover very little difference in their progeny on account of age. A ram 
lamb should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, I 
think, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling may run 
with 30 ewes, a two-year-old with from 40 to 50, and a three-year-old 
with from 50 to 60. Some very powerful, mature rams will serve 70 or 
80 ewes ; but 50 is enough, where they r?in with the ewes. I am satisfied 
that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his indi- 
vidual properties so decidedly to his offspring as one in full vigor. 

Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnat- 
ural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant 
blows. It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be 
•Bvoided, and, as usually managed, is destructive to everything like careful 
and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should pos- 
sess to the female, already discussed under the head of Principles of 
Breeding — counterbalancing her defects with his own marked excellence 
in the same points, and, in turn, having his defects counterbalanced by 
her excellencies — ^liow shall this be accomplished, where half a dozen or 
rnore rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes % 

Before the rams are let out, the flock-master should have all the breed- 
ing-ewes brought together in one yard. He has carefully inspected his 
stock rams and noted every defect and peculiarity of their fleeces and 
forms. The breeding register is before him to settle every pedigi-ee, pro- 
vided his stock rams are nearly enough connected with some portions of 
the flock to render it necessary to guard against in-and-in breeding. The 
shepherd catches a ewe and places her before him. The pedigree being 



198 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

determined, he first notes her form, and then opening the wool on the 
shoulder, thigh and belly, notes the length, thickness, quality, and style of 
the staple. If he kept the minutes at shearing recommended by me (un- 
der the head of " Selection ") it will save much time and lead to far more 
accurate classification. When every point in the ewe is determined, he 
decides which ram, on the whole, is best calculated to perpetuate her ex- 
cellencies both of fleece and carcass, and best counteibalance her defects 
in their mutual offspring. With a pigment composed of Venitian red and 
hog's lard, he then, as has been already mentioned under the head of 
Registering, gives the ewe a mark which will last until the next shearing, 
which will show by what ram she was tupped. Those selected for each 
ram are placed in different inclosures, and the chosen ram placed with 
them. In four weeks' time, the rams are withdrawn, and the flocks 
doubled or otherwise rearranged for winter, as may be necessary. This 
looks like taking considerable trouble, but having practiced it for years 
on my farm, and having always made these selections myself, I know 
that in reality the trouble is very slight — nothing, when the beneficial re- 
sults are taken into consideration. With a couple assistants, to catch, a 
day would suffice for effecting the proper classification and division of sev- 
eral hundred ewes. 

Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is an object to make the ser- 
vices of one go a great way — or where it is impossible to have separate 
inclosures, (as on farms where there .there are a 

great number of breeding-ewes, or whei'e the shep- ^'g- •^Q- 

herd system is adopted to the exclusion offences,) 
the following method may be resorted to. Build a 
hut containing as many apartments as you wish to 
use rams, with an alley between ihem. That part 
of fig. 30 which is surrounded by black lines repre- 
sents the hut divided into four apartments, each fur- 
nished with a feeding-box and trough in one comer. 
Gates or bars open from each apartment into the 
alley, and at each end of the alley. The dotted 
lines inclose a yard just sufficient to hold the flock 
of breeding-ewes. 

A couple of strong rams (of any quality) for about 
every hundred ewes, are then aproned, their brisk- 
ets rubbed with Venitian red and hog's lard, and they are let loose among 
the ewes. Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking 
broad enough to extend from the foie to the hind legs, loosely but strongly 
round the body. To prevent its slipping forward or back, straps are car- 
ried round the breast and back of the breech. It is indispensable that it 
be raa.d.e perfectly secure, or all the labor of this method of coupling will 
be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be 
renewed every two or three days — and it will be necessary, usually, to 
change the "teasers," as these aproned rams are called, about once a 
week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural cir- 
cumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of 
the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the 
alley. Each is admitted to the ram for which she is marked once, and 
then goes out at the opposite end of the alley from which she entered, into a 
sepai-ate field fi-om that containing the flock from which she was taken. 
A powerful and vigorous ram from three to seven years old, and properly 
fed, can thus be made to serve from 150 to even 200 ewes, with no greater 
injury than from ruiming loose with 50 or 60. 







SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 199 

This, too, looks like a great amount of laboi* to attain the result sought, 
but having had it formerly practiced for two years on my farm, I know 
that when conducted with system, and by a prompt and handy shepherd, 
it consumes no great amount of time. 

Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years long- 
er, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is well to continue it, 
gradually decreasing the quantity, for a few days after they are withdrawn 
from the flock of ewes. A ram should receive the equivalent of from half 
a pint to a pint of oats, daily, when worked hard. They are much more 
conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered to run at large, they 
should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by 
the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their stock-rams fi-om the time 
they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so 
that they can be led about without dragginar or liftinsr them. An iron rinf 
attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a cord can be at- 
tached for leading, confining, &c., is very useful and handy. If rams are 
wild, it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and 
it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some 
breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks 
nights, shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. There is no 
objection to this practice, and it is a great saving of their strength. 

Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at 
least in the North. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that she 
have a lamb later than the first of June. And after the rutting senson is 
over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes danger- 
ous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. 

Division op Flocks. — If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during 
winter, according to the Northern custom, it is necessary to divide them 
into flocks of about 100 each, to consist of sheep of about the same size 
and strength. Otherwise the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rap- 
idly decline. This would not be so important where the sheep roam at 
large, but even in that case some division and classification are necessary, 
— or, at all events hest. It is best, indeed, as already stated, even in sum- 
mer. The poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or 
a little more grain and better shelter in winter. 

By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and weth- 
ers are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter ; and it is best to keep 
yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and 
any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which 
cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding-ewes. 

The Hospital. — Old and feeble, or wounded sheep, late-bom lambs, etc., 
should be placed by themselves, if the number does not even exceed a score. 
They require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. But after 
all, unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, it is better to sell 
them off" in the fall at any price, — or to give them to some poor neighbor 
who has time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. 

Yards. — Expeiience has amply demonstrated, that in the climate of the 
Northern and Eastern States — where no gi-ass grows from four to four and 
a half months in the winter — and where, therefore, all that can be obtain- 
ed from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, innutritions herbage left in 
the fall — it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where the 
ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at other 



200 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



times, they get enough gi-ass to take away their appetite for dry hay, but 
not enough to sustain them ; they fall away, and towards spring they be- 
come weak, and a large proportion of them fi'equently perish. I speak, 
of course, of flocks of some size, and on properly stocked farms. A few 
sheep, with a boundless range, would do better. 

Some of our flock-masters let out their sheep occasionally for a single 
day, during a thaw ; others keep them entirely from the ground until let 
out to grass in the spring. I prefer the former course, where the sheep 
ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and 
a single day's grazing will not take off" their appetite from more than one 
succeeding dry feed. It is necessaiy, here, to keep the sheep in the yards 
until the tieed has got a good start in the spring, or they, particularly 
breeding-ewes, will get off' from their feed, and get weak at the most crit- 
ical time for them in the year. 

Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, — and they should, (in iAw climate,) 
be kept well littered with straw. 

My impression is that the yarding system will never be practiced to any 
extent in the South, It certainly should not be, where sheep can get their 
living from the fields. How Ikr, and under what circumstances, they will 
do this, has already been sufficiently discussetl in my preceding Letters. 

Feeding-Racks. — When the ground is frozen, and especially when 
covered with snow, the sheep eats hay better on the ground than anywhere 
else. When the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarce- 
ly touch hay placed on it. It should then be fed in racks. 

These are of various forms. 
Figure 31 gives the common box ^'s- 3i. 

rack, in the most general use in 
the North. It is ten feet long, 
two and a half wide, the lower 
boards a foot wide, the upper 
ones about ten inches, the two 
about nine inches apart, and the 
corner posts three by three, or 

three and a half by two and a half inches. The boards are spiked on these 
posts by large flat headed nails wrought for the purpose, and the lower 
edges of the upper boards and the upper edges of the lower ones are 
rounded so they shall not wear the wool oft' from the sheep's necks. The 
lower boards and the opening for the heads, should be two or three inches 
narrower for lambs. If made of light wood, as they should be, a man 
standing in the inside and middle of one of these racks, can easily carry it 
about — an important desideratum. Unless overfed, sheep waste very lit- 
tle hay in them. 

A capital shed or barn rack is represented in the following cut. The 




BOX HACK. 




HOLE RACK. 



holes are eip;ht inclies wide, nine inches high, and eighteen inches from 
center to center. Sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



201 



so much with these as with box racks. But they would be too heavy and 
unnecessai'ily expensive for a common out-door rack. Fig. 32 represents 
a box, the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, but they are 
usually formed by nailing the boards perpendiculai'ly, the bottoms on the 
sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. 

In the South, as in England, racks will not be so necessary for that 
constant use to which they ai-e put in colder countries, as for dej)ositories 
of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft warm 
weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is 
to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder — though the little they 
will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden freeze, or 
on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the racks, and fill 
themselves with dry food. By an instinct beautifully illustrative of the 
providence of the Creator, sheep anticipate the coming storm, and eat an 
extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat, during the succeeding 
depression of temperature. They should always have racks of dry fod- 
der to resort to in such emergencies. 

These occasionally used racks should have covers or roofs to protect 
their contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would be often spoiled be- 
fore but a small portion of it was consumed. Hay or straw saturated with 
water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of ab- 
solute necessity. The common box rack (fig. 31) would answer the pur- 
pose very well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof formed of 
a couple of boards, (one hung at the upper edge witli iron or leather hin- 
ges so that it could be lifted up like a lid ;) making the ends tight ; draw- 
ing in the lower edges of the sides so that it shall not be more than a foot 
wide on the bottom ; inserting a floor; and then mounting it on and mak- 
ing it fast to two cross sills four or five inches square to keep the floor off 
from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturn- 
ed. The lower side board should be narrower than in fig. 31, on account 
of the increased hight given its upper edge by the sills. 

Still better, but somewhat more expensive, would be a rack of the same 
constiuction, with the sides like those of fig. 32. 

Or, the sides might consist of rundles as in fig. 33. In either of the 
preceding, the top might be nailed down, and the fodder inserted by little 
doors in the ends. 

The f )llowitig form and description of an English rack is from the 
"Book of the Farm."* 

Fis;. 33. 




SPARRED RACK. 



" I have found," says Mr. Stephens, " this form convenient, containing as much straw at 
a tinie as should be given, admitting the straw easily into it, being easily moved about, of 

* It will be found in the reprint of this splendid work, in The Farmers' Library, toI. ii. p 449 

2C 



202 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

easy access to the sheep, and bein^ so near the ground as to form an excellent shelter. It 
is made of wood, is 9 feet in length, 4.J feet in hight, and 3 feet in width, having a sparred 
rack with a double face below, which is covered with an angled roof of boards to throw off 
the rain. The rack is supported on two tnangidar-shaped ti'essels h., shod with iron at the 
points, which are pushed into the ground, and act as stays against the effects of the wind 
from either side. The billet c, fixed on the under or acute edge of the rack, rests upon the 
gromid, and in common with the feet, supports it from bending down in the middle. The 

lid a is opened on hinges when the fodder is put into the rack Such a rack is easily 

moved about by two persons, and their position should be changed according to a change 
of wind indicative of a stoi*m." 

I used racks formed of rounds (or "sparred") for several years, and 
found them decidedly objectionable. The sheep grasping a lock of hay in 
its mouth, brings the head to its natural position, and then draws in the 
adhering fibres in the process of mastication. But when eating from a 
rack, it will not pick up the hay which it drop)s under foot. In the box or 
hole racks (figs. 31 and 32) most sheep will not withdraw their heads 
from the openings, as they can there hold them in the ordinary position 
for mastication, and as, if they step back to do so, they are very liable to 
be crowded out of their places. The hay, therefore, is not drawn out of 
the rack, and if any is dropped, it falls within it and is saved. At a sparred 
rack, the sheep will not keep its nose between the rundles (in a horizon- 
tal or upward position) until it detaches a mere mouthfull of hay. It will, 
particularly when partly sated, twitch out its fodder prior to mastication, 
and all which scatters off and drops to the ground, is trampled under foot 
and wasted, except for the mere purpose of manure. A considerable loss 
will always result fi-om this cause. 

And there is another objection to this form of rack, particularly where 
it runs down to an acute edge on the bottom, as in fig. 33. The sheep 
frequently drawing the hay from the lower part, will shake down from 
above hay-seeds and chafi'into the wool on their head and necks ; and the 
wind will sometimes carry these as far as their shoulders and even their 
backs. As heretofore remarked, these cannot be washed out, and they 
materially lower the market value of the wool. 

The following rack has been used and is highly approved by my friend, 
George Geddes, Esq., of Fairmount, N. Y., to whom I am indebted for 
the drawing and description of the cut. It serves both for a rack and 
feeding-trough. 

Fig. 34. 



THE HOPPER-RACK. 

" The above is intended to represent a section of what I think the best sheep-rack I have 
seen. 

" A piece of durable wood about 4^ feet long, 6 or 8 inches deep, and 4 inches thick, 
has two notches, a, a, cut into it, and two troughs, made of inch boards, h, h, h, b, placed ia 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY TN THE SOUTH. 



203 



these notclies, and nailed fast, constitutes the foundation. If the rack is to be 14 lieet Urns, 
three sills wiU be required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the side of 
the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to ha\ e the rack, and nail-i driven 
through these end-boards uito the ends of the side-boards/,/, secure them. The sides 
may he farther streugtliened by pieces of board on the outside of them, and fitted into tlie 
trough. A roof may be put over all if desired. With a roof, the fodder is kept entirely 
from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the wool." 

Trougrs. — Threshed grain, chopped roots, &c., when fed to sheep 
should be laid in troughs. With any of the preceding forms of racks, ex- 
cepting fig. 34, a separate trough would be required. For a number of 
years I have used those of the following form, and have found them every 
way satisfactoiy. 

Fis. 35. 




SHEEP-TROOGH. 



One of the side-boards is usually about ten and the other eleven inches 
wide. The feet are commonly of two-inch plank, rising high enouo-h on 
the sides to keep the sides of the trough firm in their places. 

In our snowy climate they are turned over after feeding, and when falls 
of snow are anticipated, one end is laid on the yard fence.* 

The following elaborately ingenious contrivance for keeping grain where 
sheep can feed on it ai rvill, is from the " Book of the Farm," and I ap- 
pend the author's description of it.t 



Fig. 36. 



Fig. 37. 





VERTICAL SECTION OF INTERIOR 
OF GRAIN BO;C. 



GRAIN BOX FOR SHEEP. 



" There is a mode of preserving com (grain) for sheep on turnips which has been tried 
with success in Fife. It consists of a box like a hay -rack, in which the grain is at all 
times kept closely shut up, except when sheep wish to eat it, and then they get it by 
a simple contrivance. The box a b contains the grain, into which it is poured through the 
small hinged lid y. The cover c d concealing the grain, is also hinged, and when elevated the 
sheep have access to the grain. Its elevation is effected by the pressure of the sheep's fore- 
feet upon the platform e f, which, moving as a lever, acts upon the lower ends of the up- 
right rods g and h, raises them up, and elevates the cover c d, under which their heads 
then find admittance into the box. A similar apparatus gives them access to the other side 
of the box. The whole machine can be moved about to convenient places by means of 



* To you, Sir, living on the ocean shore of South Carolina, and who, I think, have not visited the North, 
in the depth of winter, the idea of a farmer's finding the racks used by him the day before, buried under 
from eighteen inches to three feet of enow, and having to dig them out, may be rather an odd one ! But, 
nevertheless, it is a matter of no vltij rare occurrence, at least at the lowest depth mentioned, 

t See Farmers' Library, vol. ii., No. 10, p. 476. 



204 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

four wheels. The conslTuction of the interior of the box being somewhat peculiar, another, 
fig. 37, is given as a vertical section of it, where ^> is the huiged lid by which the grain 
is put into the box, whence it is at once received into the hopper d, the bottom of which 
being open, and brought near that of tlie box, a small space only is left for the grain to 
pass into the box, the hopper fonning the grain-store , a is the cover of the box raised 
on its hinges by the rod /, acted upon by the platfonn e f, fig. 35; and, when in this po- 
sition, the sheep put their heads below a at c, and eat the grain at d. Machines of simi- 
lar construction to this have also been devised to serve poultiy with grain at will." 

I never have thought it best in feeding or fattening any animals, or, at 
all events, any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will — preferring stated 
feeds ; and the same remark is applicable to fodder. If this system is de- 
parted from in using depository racks, as heretofore recommended, it is 
because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A Me- 
rino store-sheep, allowed grain ad libitvm, would stand a chance to inflict 
an injury on itself, and I cannot but believe that grain so fed would gen- 
erally be productive of more injury than benefit. 

Barns and Sheds, &c. — Sheep barns and sheds, at the North, are fre- 
quently made very elaborate contrivances — particularly on ^w^?cr. But 
expensive barns, with feeding-cellars and other arrangements for keeping 
sheep within doors during a greater portion of the winter, would, it strikes 
me, be entirely out of place in the South. Even in our rigorous climate, 
none but the breeders of Saxons pretend to make a regular practice of 
feeding under cover. 

Humanity and economy both dictate, here, that sheep be provided with 
shelters to lie under nights, and to which they can resort at will. In our 
severe winter storms, it is sometimes necessary, or at least by far the best, 
to feed under shelter for a day or two. It is not an uncommon circum- 
stance in New- York and New- England, for snow to fall to the depth of 
20 or 30 inches within 24 or 48 hours, and then to be succeeded by a 
strong and intensely cold west or north-west wind of two or three days' 
continuance,* which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling huge 
drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, &c. A flock without shelter will 
huddle closely together, turning their backs to the storm, constantly step- 
ping and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them. Strong, close- 
coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as 
would be expected. But it is next to impossible to feed them enough or 
half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay 
— entirely impossible, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an in- 
stant by the wind, and even if racks are used, the sheep leaving their hud- 
dle where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting of the snow 
in their wool, soon get chilled and are disposed to return to their huddle. 
Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is lowered, and at 
the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones have sunk down hope- 
lessly, the yearlings and oldish ones have received a shock which nothing 
but careful nursing will recover them from, and even the strongest have 
suffered an injurious loss in condition. 

Few holders of more than 40 or 50 sheep now attempt to get along* 
here without some kind of shelters. The following (fig. 38) is a very 
common form of a Northern sheep-barn with sheds. The sheds front the 
south, or, what is a better arrangement, one fronts the east, and the other, 
being turned to a right angle to the direction of this, fronts the south. I 
have represented hole racks, as in fig. 32, running round the sheds, as, 
although not yet in general use, they are undoubtedly the best in such sit- 

* These terrible wLnd-storms are of much longer continuance in many parts of New-England. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



205 



uations. The sheds ai-e not usually framed or silled, — but are supported 
by posts of some durable timber set in the ground. The roofs are formed 
of boards "battened " with slabs. The barn has no partitions within, and 
is entirely filled with hay. 

Fig 38. 




SHEEP-BARN. 



There are many situations where these open sheds are very liable to haA^e 
snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all cases 
in severe gales, to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large 
drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and are 
very inconvenient — particularly when they thaw. T therefore much prefer 
sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide door-way 
for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for ventilation when it is 
necessary. They are convenient for yarding sheep, for the various process- 
es where this is required, as for shearing, marking, sorting, " doctorino-," 

Fig. 39. 




THE OUTSIDE STELL. 



&c., and especially so, for lambing places or the confinement of newly 
shorn sheep in cold storms. They should be spacious enough, so that in 



206 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily through 
the middle when required. 

In many parts of Scotland, "Stells," as they are called, are made use 
of to shelter sheep. Fig. 39 on the preceding page is the form of one given 
in " The Book of the Farm," and the author's description of it : 

" In a storm, their provender cannot be given to the sheep up(m snow, safely and conven- 
iently, as ground-drift may blow and cover both ; and no place is so suitable for the purpose 
as a ste.ll It may be formed of planting or high stone-wall. Either will aftbrd shel- 
ter ; but the former most, though most costly, as it should be fenced by a stone-wall. Of 
this class I conceive tlie form represented (fig. 38') a good one, and which may be char- 
acterized as an 0{<^si(/e stell The circumscnbing strong black line is a stone-wall six. 

feet high ; the dark gi-ound within is covered with trees. Its four rounded projections shel- 
ter a corresponding number of recesses embraced between them, so that let the wind blow 
from what cpiarter it may, two of the recesses will be always sheltered from the storm. The 
size of this stell is regulated by the number of sheep kept ; but this rule may be remem- 
bered in regard to its accommodation for stock, that each recess occupies about J part of the 
space comprehended between the extiemities of the 4 projections ; so that in a stell covering 
4 acres — which is perhaps the least size they should be, every recess will contain ^ an acre." 

The two following are forms of stells, composed of stone-wall, without 
planting. 

Fig. 40. 




Fig 41. 




ANCIENT STELLS. 

Figures 42 and 43, on the following page, are forms of circular stells, 
the first made by stone-walls and planting, as in fig. 39. The open space 
a is occupied by the sheep, and Z» is a funnel-shaped opening to it. 

On the whole I should consider fig. 42 preferable to any of the preceding 
forms. Figure 43 represents one of the same form, but Avithout the 
planting, with a stack in the middle, &c. Either of the stells which are 
formed in part of trees, would be convenient in severe winds, would form 
excellent shades in summer, and would constitute highly ornamental ob- 
jects on the farm, and in the landscape. On the most northerly of the 
Southern mountains, where considerable snow falls, they might even be 
good contrivances for winter shelter. They might also be convenient on 
the lowlands farther south, provided the shelter of evergreens could be 
made dense enough to protect the sheep from the winter rains. In this 
case, the stell or covert might be of any shape, and ought to have no cen 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



207 



tral opening. It would be merely a dense clump of evergreen trees, for 
the sheep to take refuge under in storms of rain, and it might be surround- 
ed on the outside with a tight board fence or stone-wall, if much exposed 

Fig. 42. 




THE INSIDE CIRCULAR STELL- 



to the sweep of cold winds. As the sheep would lie among the trees, a 
clump 50 or 60 feet in diameter — though 100 feet would be better — would 
suffice for 100 sheep. 



Fig. 43. 




THE CIRCULAR STELL FITTED UP WITH HAT-RACKS. 

But in determining upon the best winter shelters, for the various re- 
gions in the South, the fact must not be lost sight of that cold rains, or 
rains of any temperature, toTien immediately succeeded hy cold, or freezing 
weather, or cold, piercing u'inds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow- 
storms — and that consequently sheep must be adequately guarded against 
them. There must also he suitable shelter from any storms to which the 
country is subject, in the lamhing season. Any person with the least ex- 
perience can determine whether an inclosed clump of trees will answer 
these purposes, in his own immediate region. 

I think it veiy probable that in the Gulf States, and some of the lower 
Atlantic ones — particularly in regions near the ocean — these tree coverts, 



208 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



surrounded by fences to lireak the winds, would be found sufficient. In 
sections infested with wolves, they mig-ht also be made to answer for folds, 
by carrying the fence to the requisite bight, to bar the ingress of the wolf 
But farther north, and on the high lands and mountains, better shelters 
would, I am inclined to think, in the end, be found more economical. 

The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is represented in the following 
cut (fig. 44). It is formed by poles or rails, the upper ends resting on a 
strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It 
may be rendered rain-proof by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs. 

Fig. 44. 




SHED OF RAILS. 



In a region where lumber is very cheap, planks or boards (of sufficient 
thickness not to spring downward and thus open the roof) battened with 
slabs, may take the place of the poles and boughs ; and they would make 
a tighter and more durable roof If the lower ends of the boards or poles 
are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, 
the shed will shelter more sheep. 

These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns, " hay-ban'acks," 
stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle 
like fig. 43. In the latter case, however, the yard should be square, in- 
stead of 7-onnd, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the 
boards or poles, which the round form would render necessary. 

Sheds of this description are frequently made, in the North, between 
two stacks. The end of the horizontal supporting pole is placed on the 
stack-pens, when the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by 
crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the 
upper girts of two hay-barracks ; or two such sheds (at angles with each 
other) might form wings to this structure. The " barrack," as it is pro- 
vincially termed in the North, would, it strikes me, affijrd a most econom- 
ical and a most convenient way of storing fodder in the South. It is ea- 
sily movable, so that it possesses the same advantage that stacks do, in 
manuring different parts of the field or farm. On the other hand, the fod- 
der cannot be drenched by a winter rain, as in a partly fed out stack. 
Hay can be more rapidly stored in it than on a stack at any time, and you 
can pitch into it to the last moment, when threatened with rain, without 
stopping to round up the top as is necessary in a stack. The outside is 
not weather-beaten and damaged, as is the case with the sides, and fre- 
quently with a considerable of the top of a stack. Fig. 45 (on the next 
page) represents the form of a banack. It is 12 feet square on the bot- 
tom, and the frame is formed by girting together four strong poles, 16 feet 
longr, at the bottom, and 6 feet from the V)ottom. Boards 6 feet long are 
nailed perpendicularly on the girts. TAvo-inch holes are bored at con- 
venient distances through the corner poles, so that the roof, which rests 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



209 



It seems to me that this structure 



Fig. 45. 



on pins thrust through these holes, can be raised or lowered, at pleasure. It 

is occasionally lowered as the fodder gets lower in the barrack, so that 

rain or snow shall not drive under it. 

would be remarkably well adapted 

to the storing and feeding out of un- 

threshed peas, which, as has been 

remarked in a former Letter, are so 

advantageously raised at the South, 

and constitute so admirable a feed 

for sheep. 

On all large sheep-farms con- 
venience requires that there be one 
barn of considerable size, to con- 
tain the shearing-floor, and the ne- 
cessary conveniences about it for 
yarding the sheep, &c. This should 
also, fur economy, be a hay-barn, 
(where hay is used,) and fi-om its 
necessary size (for the shearing- 
floor), it should hold hay for 400 sheep. It may be constructed in the 
corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, with- 
out making improperly sized flocks. At this barn it would be expedient 
to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on 
the farm, if their number did not exceed 400. Thus the shepherd would 
be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, 
and each flock would be under his almost constant supervision. 

I offer the following ground-plan of a barn with fixtures, &e., as one 
which I think will be found well adapted to the purpose above specified. 
The upper is the north part of the plan. 

Fig. 46. 




I ^- 




The dotted lines a, a, a, a, are the fences dividing four fields, which would 
corner at the south-east corner of the bam. The barn is sun-ounded by double 
lines, and the sheds by double lines on the backs and ends — the dots in 
front of them, representing the crotched posts supporting their front. The 
single black lines round the yards, represent tight board fences, which 
screen the four yards b, c, d, e, from every wind. There are two pumps and 
troughs at 7i, h, which accommodate the whole four fields, if a want of 
springs or streams in them render these necessary. The sheds are so ar- 

2D 



210 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

rano-ed that even without the screens they entirely shut out the north and 
west winds — the prevaihng and severe winter ones of this region — and if 
other ones are more prevalent in other regions, the sheds can be changed 
accordingly. Each of the sheds is 50 feet long and 12 feet wide — six 
square feet being the smallest _^;ro^er allowance of sheltered area for each 
sheei^. The barn is 48 feet square, a floor 13 feet wide running east and 
west through the center, for shearing and for the drawing in of hay. An 
alley 4 feet wide and 8 feet high (boajded up on the side toward the 
mow, and covered at the top) cuts off the lower part of each bay from the 
east wall of the barn. This is for carrying hay into the yards b, c. It is 
carried into the yards ^, e, from the large doors at each end of the shearing- 
floor (or from smaller ones cut through them.) The south bay is repre- 
sented as divided by a temporary fence, cutting it into two pens^i g. The 
outside inclosure c, for yarding the sheep, communicating by a door with 
f, and g being used as a room to tie up wool in, presents precisely the 
same arrangement which is exhibited in the cut of the shearing-barn 
(fig. 22) in Letter XI I. 

The barn here given (fig. 46) is probably larger than would be neces- 
sary for 400 sheep, in most parts of the South. Its necessaiy size is a 
question to be entirely determined by the climate. For large flocks of 
sheep, I should regard the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter 
as an indispensable precautionary measure, at least, in any part -of the 
United States ; and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more 
elevated the land, the greater would be the necessary amount to be stored. 

The shearing-floor shortened to 30 or 35 feet, would still, perhaps, be 
sufiiciently commodious, and this would reduce the dimensions of the barn 
east and west 13 or 18 feet ; and one of the bays might be dispensed with. 
But having constructed so large, so smooth, and so tight a barn-floor as 
the shearing one ought to be, it would be good economy to use it for the 
threshing of grain. One of the bays, therefore, might be used for the 
storage of grain in the sheaf. I have always considered this an excellent 
arrangement in a 'Northern barn of this description, as in our cold climate 
the sheep require much straw litter in their sheds, yards, &c. Thrown 
out to them daily, as threshed, much bright straw and chaff" will be con- 
sumed by them — particularly of greenish cut oats. 

The yards c, e, in fig. 46 are represented but the width of the bam, 48 
feet. If these were reduced too much, by diminishing the size of the barn, 
the shed of c could be carried farther west at_;, and that of <? farther north 
at i, being connected with the barn by wind-breakers, composed of a tight 
board fence, as high as the summit of the sheds. Or, what would perhaps 
be better, the fences thrown forward in a straight line from the ends of 
these two sheds might be continued until they intersected each other, and 
a fence from their point of intersection to the south-east corner of the bam 
would divide the two yards. 

Feeding Sheep with other Stock. — Sheep should not run or be fed, 
in yards, with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally. Colts 
tease and frequently injure them. It is often said that " colts will pick up 
what sheep leave." Well-managed sheep rarely leave anything — and if 
they chance to, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts'yard, 
than to feed them together. If sheep are not required to eat their feeds 
pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large quantities. But if sheep 
are overfed with either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them by 
starvation to come back and eat it. They will not unless sorely pinched. 
Clean out the troughs, — or rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



211 



Hay-Holders. — Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper 
doors of a barn into the sheep-yard, as it always must necessarily be in a 
barn constructed like fig. 38, or any mere hay-ham, or where it is thrown 
from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush on it, trampling it and 
soiling it, and the succeeding forkfulls fall on their backs, filling their wool 
with dust, seed and chaff. This is avoided by hay-holders — yards 10 feet 
square — either portable by being made of posts and boards, or simply a 
pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each 
stack or barrack. The hay is pitched into the holder, in fair weather 
enough for a day's foddering at a time, and is taken from this by forkfulls 
and placed in the racks. I would here offer a necessary caution in rela- 
tion to the use of rails or poles, for stack -pens or hay-holders, The poles 
should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads 
between them after hay. A sheep will often insert its head where the 
opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it along or get crowded 
along, to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and 
it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as it 
often happens, it is thus caught when its fore parts are elevated by climb- 
ing up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its fore footing in its 
struffffles, and will soon choke to death. 

Winter Dry Feed for Sheep. — The proper dry winter fodder for sheep 
has already been repeatedly alluded to, in general terms. Volumes have 
been expended on this subject, particulai'ly in Germany — and curious and 
elaborate systems of feeding given. In Germany great stress is laid on 
variety in the winter fodder. In the German Farmer's Encyclopaedia, the 
following table of the proper variations and amounts of feed is given by 
Petri. 

TABLE 15. 







Loth, 






Loth, 






Loth, 




Day. 
1 


Lbs. 


>roi. 

21 


Morning. 


Lbs. 


equal 


Noon. 


Lbs. 


pqual 
M oz. 

21 


Evening. 


hay 




21 


hay 


hay 


o 


1 


1 


rye straw 


1 


22 


hay 


1 


1 


rye straw 


3 




23 


bean straw 




26 


vetch-hay 




23 


bean straw 


4 


1 




wheat straw 


1 




sainfoin 


1 




wheat straw 


5 


1 


6 


oat straw 




21 


hay 


1 


6 


oat straw 


6 


1 


6 


artichoke stalk 


1 


19 


red clover 


1 


6 


artichoke stalk 


7 


1 


8 


turkey wheat 


1 


12 


lucern 


1 


8 


turkey-wheat str'w 


8 


1 


8 


buckwheat straw 


1 


16 


hay 


1 


8 


buckwheat straw 


9 


1 


6 


oat straw 




7 


horse-beans 


1 


6 


oat straw 


10 




19 


red clover 




19 


red clover 




19 


red clover 


11 




18 


sainfoin 




IS 


sainfoin 




18 


sainfoin 


12 


1 


6 


millet straw 


1 


6 


millet straw 


1 


6 


millet straw 


13 




30 


lentil straw 




21 


hay 




30 


lentil straw 


14 




30 


pea straw 




21 


hay 




30 


pea straw 


15 




30 


barley straw 


1 




artichoke stalk 




30 


barley straw 


16 


1 


10 


horse -beau straw 


1 


10 


horse-bean straw 


1 


10 


horse-beau straw 


17 


1 


1 


rye straw 


1 


11 


oat straw 


1 


1 


rye straw 


18 


1 


3 


wheat straw 


1 


9 


oat straw 


1 


3 


wheat straw 


19 


1 


6 


rye straw 


1 




tnrkev-wheat 


1 


3 


wheat straw 


20 


1 


6 


oat straw 


1 


1 turkey-wheat 


1 


6 


oat straw 


21 


1 


3 


wheat straw 




22 artichoke stalk 


1 


6 


oat straNv 


22 




30 


lentil straw 


1 


30 vetch straw 




30 


lentil straw^ 


23 


1 


6 


oat straw 


1 


6 wheat straw 


1 


6 


oat straw 



The same writer gives the following as the proper winter feed of a 
ewe, the month preceding lambing : 



212 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



TABLE 16. 




C In the morniug, 


31b. 


of good oat straw. 


1st day. 






noon — 


.1 .. 


of good hay of clover. 








evenmg. 


-3 .- 


of good barley straw. 








morning 


-3 .. 


of millet straw. 


2d day . 






noon 


o 


of potatoes with 4 oz. of chopped straw, and 4 oz. of oats. 








evening. 


■.i ■.'. 


of barley straw. 








morning 


•1 .. 


of hay. 


3d day . 






noon . . . 


3 -- 


of hay, 








evening. 


.1 .. 


of wheat, oat, barley or buckwheat straw. 




. ^ 




morning 


■3 - 


of summer straw. 


4th day. 




noon ... 


.i .. 


of chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats and 3 oz. bran, moistened 
with water. 








evening. 


■i - 


of winter straw. 








morning 


-3 .- 


of hay. 


5th day. 


. / 




noon 


.2 


of potatoes with \ lb. of chopped straw. 








evening. 


3 
-5 .. 


of winter straw. 








morning 


-3 .- 


of hay. 


6th day. 


. ) 




noon 


.as in 


4th day, 








evening. 


A lb. 


of straw. 



All this would be infinitely " more nice than wise," in any part of the 
United States. Variations of dry fodder are well enough, but hundreds 
and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary hay, con- 
sisting mainly of Timothy, (Phleum fratense,) some Red and White Clo- 
ver, ( Trifolium 2^ratense et rcj'eTts,) and frequently a sprinkling of June or 
Spear grass, (Poa ptatensis,) during the entire winter. Others receive an 
occasional fodder of corn-stalks and straw — and some farmers give a daily 
feed of grain through the winter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may 
be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks (or " blades ") every 
fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day. Or the daily feed, not of hay, might 
alternate between blades, pea-straw, straw of the cereal gi-ains, &c. Should 
any other fodder besides hay be the principal one, as, for example, corn- 
blades or pea-haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the 
same way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of convenience with 
the flock-master, provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment xcitliin a 
proper co?npass, is given. Hay, clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn- 
blades are palatable to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply 
of nutriment in the quantity which the sheep can readily take into its stom- 
ach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can derive its entire 
subsistence. The same remarks may, possibly, apply to gi'eenish cut oat 
and barley straw; but it would not, I apprehend, be economical or alto- 
gether safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal gi'ains 
unless some of those little hardy varieties of sheep which would be of no 
value in this country. Experiment will readily show the flock-master 
what kinds of food are palatable and agree with the health of his flock. 
The following exceedingly valuable Table, prepared by Boussingault, will 
give the value of various kinds of feed in comparison with ordinary natu- 
ral meadow hay, as ascertained by himself, Von Thaer, Block, and other 
distinguished Agricultural Chemists. The results are obtained by chemi- 
cal analysis, and by actual experiments in feeding. The amount of nitro- 
gen in 100 parts is made the chemical test of value, as it shows the quan- 
tity of fibrin, albumen, and casein, (by multiplying by 6.3.) The experi- 
mental result is obtained by weighing the animal and the feed, and giving 
him enough of each to maintain him in good condition. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



2i'3 



TABLE 17. 



FODDERS. 

TABLE OF THE NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FODDERS. 



Kinds of Food. 



Ordinary natural meadow hay 

Do. of fine quality 

Do. select 

Do. freed from woody stems 

Lucern hay 

Red clover hay, 2d yeai's growth. 
Red clover cut in flower, green, do 

New wh eat straw, crop 1841 

Old wheat straw 

Do. do. lower parts of the stalk... 
Do. do. upper part of do. and ear.. 

New rye-straw 

Old do 

Oat-straw 

Barley do 

Pea do 

Millet do 

Buckwheat do 

Lentil do 

Vetches cut in flower and dried ? 

into hay 3 

Potato tops 

Field-beet leaves 

Carrot do 

Jerusalem artichoke stems 

Lime-trees, young shoots 

Canada Poplar do 

Oak do 

Acacia do. (autumn) 

Drum cabbage 

Swedish turnip 

Turnip 

Field-beet (1838) 

Do. white Silesian 

Carrots 

Jerusalem artichokes (1839) 

Do. (1836) 

Potatoes (1838) 

Do. (1836) 

Do. after keeping in the pit 

Cider apple pulp dried in the air.. 

Beet-root from the sugar mill 

Vetches in seed 

Field-beans 

White peas (dry) 

White haricots 

Lentils 

New Indian Com 

Buckwheat 

Barley (1836).............. 

Barley-meal 

Oats (1838) 

Do. (1836) 

Rve (1838) 

Wheat (1836, Alsace) 

Do. from highly manured soil 

Recent Bran 



Wheat husks or chaff 

Rice (Piedmont) 

Gold of Pleasure seed (Madia) 

Do. cake 

Linseed cake 

Colza do 

Madia do 

Hemp do 

Poppy do 

Nut do 

Beech-mast do 

Arachis (Pin'dars) do 

Dry acorns 

Refuse of the wine-press, air-dried 



11.0 
14.0 
18.8 
14.0 
16.6 
10.1 
76.0 
26.0 
8.5 
5.3 
9.4 
18.7 
12.6 
21.0 
11.0 
8.5 
19.0 
11.6 
9.2 

11.0 

76.0 
88.9 
70.9 
86.4 
55.0 
62.5 
57.4 
53.6 
92.3 
91.0 
92.5 
87.8 
85.6 
87.6 
79.2 
75.5 
65.9 
79.4 
76.8 
6.4 
70.0 
14.6 
7.9 
8.6 
5.0 
9.0 
18.0 
12.5 
13.2 
13.0 
20.8 
12.4 
11.0 
10.5 
16.6 

37.1 

7.6 

13.4 

8.0 

11.2 

13.4 

10.5 

6.5 

5.0 

6.8 

6.0 

6.--> 

6.6 



1.34 

1.50 
2.40 
2.44 
1.66 
1.70 

0.36 
0.53 
0.43 
1.42 
0.30 
0.50 
0.36 
0.30 
1.95 
0.96 
0.54 
1.18 

1.16 

2.30 
4.50 
2.94 
2.70 
3.25 
2.29 
2.16 
1..56 
3.70 
1.83 
1.70 
1.70 
1.43 
2.40 
1.60 
2.20 
1..50 
1.80 
1.18 
0.63 

5.13 
5.50 
4.20 
4.30 
4.40 
2.00 
2.40 
2.02 
2.46 
2.20 
2.22 
2.27 
2.33 
3.18 

2.18 

094 
1.39 
4.00 
5.70 
6.00 
5.50 
5.93 
4.78 
5.70 
5.59 
3.53 



48.2 3.31 



1.15 
1.30 
2.00 
2.10 
1.38 
1.54 
0.64 
0.27 
0.49 
0.41 
1.33 
0.24 
0.42 
0.30 
0.25 
1.79 
0.78 
0.48 
1.01 

1.14 

ff55 
C.'iO 
0.85 
0.37 
1.45 
0.86 
0.92 
0.72 
0.28 
0.17 
0.13 
0.21 
0.18 
0.30 
0.33 
0.42 
0.36 
0.37 
0.30 
0..59 
0.38 
4.37 
5.11 
3.84 
4.58 
4.00 
1.64 
2.10 
1.7C 
2.14 
1.74 
1.92 
2.00 
2.09 
2.65 

1.36 

0.85 
1.20 
3.67 
5.06 
5.20 
4.92 
5.51 
4.21 
5.36 
5.24 
3.31 
8.33 
0.80 
1.71 



100 

98 

58 

55 

83 

75 

311 

426 

235 

280 

86 

479 

1.50 

383 

460 

64 

147 

240 

114 

101 

209 
230 
335 
311 
79 
134 
125 
160 
411 
676 
885 
548 
669 
382 
348 
274 
319 
311 
383 
195 
303 
26 
23 
27 
25 
29 
70 
55 
65 
54 
68 
60 
58 
55 
43 

85 

135 
96 
31 
23 
22 
23 
21 
27 
21 
22 
3.5 
14 

143 
68 



100 



600 



556 500 
300 
533 600 

366 I 400 
366 
205' 250 



2161 200 
400 



100 100 



33 



42 



360 



150 



225 



53 



62 



130 



429; 600 

300 2.j0 

526! 450 

460] 250 

300 250 



200 



76 



90, 90 Dombasle, 
[Ciud. 

500 Rieder. 



400 Schwertz. 
400 do. 
90 Pohl. 



380 Boussingault. 
280 do. 

280 Boussingault. 



59 Boussingault. 



^ Sorne specimens 
\ are twice as rich. 



214 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



The great value of pea-haulm, as shown in the above Table, is vi^orthy ol 
the particular notice of the Southern flock-master. Also that of millet 
straw, another crop peculiarly congenial to the Southern States, provided 
it can be cured so that sheep will eat it. Corn-stalks are not, unfortunate- 
ly, included in the Table. According to Petri, 100 pounds of corn " straw," 
(including stalks and haves, I suppose,) contains but ^ as much nutriment 
as the same weight of " aromatic meadow hay," and not so much by \ as 
an equal weight of oat or pea straw, which he makes equivalent to each 
other ! My opinion is that this by no means indicates the comparative 
value of well cured corn-stalks. No analysis of them now occurs to me, 
in any authority which I have on hand. Mr. Ellsworth, of the Patent Of- 
fice, stated in the Cultivator in 1842, that the jtiice of corn-stalks, on 
Beaume's Sacchai'ometer, is equal in saccharine matter with that of the 
cane in this country, five times greater than that of the Northern sugar- 
maple, (Acer saccharinum,) and three times that of beet! The daily ex- 
periments of our farmers demonstrate the absurdity of placing corn-stalks 
below the value of the cereal straws. Cured green and bright they ai-e a 
highly valuable fodder, and are relished by all herbivorous animals. My 
friend, James M. Ellis, Esq. of Onondaga, N. Y., one of the best managing 
flock-masters of this State, has fed corn-stalks largely to his sheep for sev- 
eral years and with decided succes. 



Effect of Food in the Production of Wool. — The fact has been be- 
fore alluded to that well fed sheep pi-oduce more wool than poorly fed 
ones. The question now arises — if the effect on the condition (flesh) of the 
sheep is the same, will one kind of food produce more wool than another ? 
No doctrine is more clearly recognized in Agricultural Chemistry, than 
that animal tissues derive their chemical components from the same com- 
ponents existing in their food.* The analyses of Liebig, Johnston, Scherer, 
Playfair, Boeckmann, Mulder, &c., show that the chemical composition of 
wool, hair, hoofs, nails, horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, 
nerves, &c. are nearly identical. The organic part of wool, according to 
Johnston, t consists of carbon 50.65, hydrogen 7.03, nitrogen 17.71, oxy- 
gen and sulphur 24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. AVhen 
burned, it leaves but 20 per cent of ash. The large quantity of nitro- 
gen (17.71) contained in wool, shows that its production is increased by 
highly azotized food. This is fully verified by the experiments made on 
Saxon sheep, in Silesia, by Reaumur, Avhose Table I append. A striking 
correspondence will be found to exist between the amount of wool and the 
amount of nitrogen in the food. 

TABLE 18. 



Kinds of food. 



1000 pounds of raw potatoes, with salt. 



1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 

1000 



without salt 

raw mangel-wurzel 

pease 

wheat 

rye, with salt 

rye, without salt 

oats 

barley 

buckwheat 

good hay 

hay, with straw, without other 

fodder 

w^hisky, still-frrains or wash. 



Increape of 

weight in 
live animal. 



461 

44 

38 

134 

ISi") 

90 

83 

146 

136 

120 

58 

31 

3.') 



3| 
11 
131 
141 
lOi 
12 

H 

lOi 



12 51 
10 141 



6 
41 
59 



35 111 

33 81 

40 8 

60 1 

33 8 

12 14 

6 11 

4 



Nitrogen 
per rent, 
in food. 



0.36 
0.36 
0.21 
3.83 
2.09 
2.00 
2.00 
1.70 
1.90 
2.10 
1.15 



* For full information on this whole subject, see Liebifj's Animnl Chemistry, Port I and II. 
f See Johnston '8 AgrioulturRl Chemistry — Lecture XVIIL Analyses of the horny tissues, by Scherer, will 
be found in the Appendix to Liebig's Animal Chemistry. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 215 

The singular difference stated in the Table, between the amount of wool 
produced by " good hay," and " hay with straw without other fodder," I 
confess is scarcely credible to me. It may be a misprint in the Table from 
which I copy. 

The peculiar value of pease not only in increasing the wool, where they 
rSink first* but in the average comparative increase which they produce in 
all the tissues, is again worthy of notice. 

Effect of Food in producing Fat and Muscle. — The increase of fat 
and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of the food. It would 
be foreign from my purpose to enter into an elaborate theoretical exam- 
ination of this subject. Liebig, in Parts I, and II. of his Animal Chemis- 
try, has covered the whole gi'ound, and to him I take the liberty to refer 
you. Mr. Spooner, w^'iting for England, where the production of flesh 
and fat is the primary object of Sheep Husbandry, has given a synopsis 
of Liebig's positions, analyses, &c., in his chapter (XXI.) on Feeding and 
Fattening — and the substance of this is again repeated by Mr. Morrell in 
his chapters on the same subjects, in The American Shephei-d. To either 
of the latter I would refer you for svfiicient details for practical purposes, 
or ^orfull information, to Liebig. 

The Tables of Boussingault and Reaumur, already given, (Tables 17 and 
18,) sufficiently indicate the value of the various grains, straw, roots, &c., 
in fattening. 

It is not very common, in the North, for wool-growers to fatten their 
wethers, for market, by extra winter feeding. Some give them a little 
more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, and then 
sell them when they have attained their maximum fatness the succeeding 
fall. When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shel- 
ters, and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice 
a day in troughs — or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent 
of from half a pint to a pint of (yellow) corn meal per head per diem is 
about as much as ordinary flocks of Merino wethers will profitably con- 
sume, though in selected flocks consisting of large animals, this amount is 
frequently exceeded. 

Feeding Grain to Store-Sheep in Winter. — The expediency of feed- 
ing grain to store-sheep in winter depends much upon circumstances. If 
in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply of grass or other gi-een 
esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary. Neither is it a matter of 
necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for weeks or 
months, provided the sheep be supplied plentifully with good dry fodder. 
Near mai'kets where the coarse grains find a good and ready sale, it is not 
usual in the Noith, to feed grain. Remote from markets, it is generally 
fed by the holders of large flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and 
they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day. Some feed half the 
same amount of (yellow) corn. Fewer sheep — particulai'ly lambs, year- 
lings, and crones — get thin and perish, where they receive a daily feed of 
grain ; they consume less hay ; and their fleeces are increased in tocight. 
On the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy. Where no grain 
is fed, three daily feeds of hay are given. It is a common and very good 
practice to feed greenish cut oats in the bundle, at noon, and give but two 
feeds of hay — one at morning and one at night. A few feed greenish 
cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing weather when sheep get 

* With the exception of " hay and straw " — the given product of which, in wool, I have already slated 
must undoubtedly be misprinted. 



216 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

to the ground, and refuse dry hay, a Httle grain assists materially in 
keeping up their strength and condition. This may furnish a useful 
hint for many parts of the South. AVhen the feed is shortest in winter, 
in the South, there are many localities where sheep would get enough 
grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, hut not quite enough to keep 
them in prime condition. A moderate daily feed of oats or pease placed 
in the depository racks, would keep them strong, in good plight for the 
lambing season, and increase their weight of wool. 

Few Northern farmers feed Indian corn to store-sheep. It is consid- 
ered " too hot and stimulating," and sheep are thought to be more liable 
to become " cloyed " on it than on oats, pease, &c. I never have fed it to 
sheep sufficiently to speak advisedly on this point. A neighboring flock- 
master whose admirable arrangements for keeping sheep are only equaled 
by his usual success, lost most of a large flock of lambs a few winters 
since. They received all they would eat of the best hay, and, as the 
owner supposed, a half gill of corn a head per day. They were in fine 
order in the beginning, and for some time into the winter. During a thaw, 
when they got a little off from their feed, and looked "hollow," the shep- 
herd, without the knowledge of the owner, increased the feed of corn. 
This caused them to eat still less hay, and the shepherd not only continued 
but increased the allowance of the corn as their appetite for hay dimin- 
ished. In a short time they ate scarcely any hay, and soon after began to 
eat their corn very irregularly. Their stomachs were now so completely 
deranged, that they would not eat ani/ thing, in quantities sufficient for 
their subsistence, and they perished rapidly and miserably. The same 
consequences might doubtless have ensued from feeding othci- grains, in 
the same improper manner. But I am inclined to think that the evil 
would have been less rapid and remediless with some other grains. I do 
mot consider yellow corn a very safe feed, at least for lambs and yearlings. 
From the obviously different character of the larger Southern varieties, 
I presume they would be less, and very probably not at all, objectionable 
for sheep feed. Haifa gill of yellow corn, or a gill of oats per head, is a 
sufficient daily allowance of grain. While there can be nothing more ab- 
surd than the German starinng system to increase the fineness of the wool, 
excessive fatness is not to be aimed at, especially in breeding-ewes. Store 
sheep should be kept in good, fair, ^;'/ww/? condition. Lambs and yearlings 
may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. 

It will not do to suffer sheep to get thin in the winter, with the idea 
that their condition can at any time be readily raised by better feed, as 
with the horse or ox. It is always difficult, and unless pi'operly managed, 
expensive and hazardous, to attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock 
in the winter — especially if they have reached that point where they mani- 
fest weakness. If the feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly 
commenced, fatal diarrhea will frequently supervene. All extra feeding, 
therefore, must be begun very gradually, and it does not seem, in any case, 
to produce proportionable results. 

I have seen it stated that sheep will eat cotton-seed and tlirive on it. 
If this be true, this must, of course, be a far more remunerating applica- 
tion of that product, than as a mere manure to soils. 

Feeding Roots, Browse, &c., in Winter. — Buta-bagas, Irish potatoes, 
&c., make a good substitute for grain, as an extra feed for grown sheep. 
I prefer the ruta-baga to the potato in equivalents of nutriment. I do not 
consider either of them, or any other root, as good for lambs and yearlings 
as an equivalent in grain. Sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cul- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 217 

tivated roots. This is done by withholding salt from them, and then feed- 
ing the chopped root a few times rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce 
them to eat the root to obtain it ; but not enough to satisfy their appetite 
for salt before they have acquired a taste for the roots. 

It is customary with some of our flock-masters to cut down from time 
to time, in the winter, and di-aw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the 
hemlock (Abies canadensis). The foliage is greedily eaten by sheep, af- 
ter being confined for some time to dry feed. I have known sheep, un- 
doubtedly, I think, killed by overeating it. Thisbi'owse is commonly used 
for some supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced " healthy for 
sheep." The popular supposition is that it is a tonic and stimulant. If 
this be true, which I will not pause to inquire, of what^ocxi use are tonics 
and stimulants to healthy animals "? With sheep, as with horses, and even 
vf il\\ men, preventive medicines are productive of injury in a thousand 
cases, where they are of benefit in one. There could be no objection, cer- 
tainly, to sheep's eating the foliage of the hemlock, if it was constantly 
accessible to them. Their instincts, in that case, would teach them 
whether, and in what quantities, to devour it. But when entirely confined 
to dry feed for a protracted period, sheep will consume hurtful and even 
poisonous succulents — and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful qitantities. 
As a mere laxative, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial ; but 
in this point of view, a day's run at grass in a thaw, or a feed of roots, 
would produce the same result. In a climate where grass is obtained 
most of the time, I should consider browse for medicinal purposes entirely 
unnecessary. 

Winter Feed op Breeding-Ewes. — Until two or three weeks pre- 
ceding lambing, it is only necessary that breeding-ewes, like other store- 
sheep, be kept in good plump ordinary condition. Nor are any separate 
arrangements necessary for them, after that period, in a climate where 
they obtain sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of 
milk. Ill backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start 
prior to the lambing time, careful flock-masters feed their ewes chopped 
roots, or roots mixed with oat or pea meal. This is, in my judgment, 
excellent economy.* 

Regularity in Feeding. — If thei-e is one rule which may be consider- 
ed more imperative than any other in Sheep Husbandry, it is that the ut- 
most regularity be preserved in feeding. First, there should be regularity 
as to the times of feeding. However abundantly provided for, when a 
flock are foddered sometimes at one hour and sometimes at another — 
sometimes three times a day and sometimes twice — some days grain and 
some days none — they cannot he made to thrive. They will do far better 
on inferior keep, if fed with strict regularity. In a climate where they re- 
quire hay three times a day, the best times for feeding are about sunrise in 
the morning, at noon, and an hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and 
horses, sheep do not eat well in the dark, and therefore they should have 
time to consume their feed before night sets in. Noon is the common time 
for feeding grain or roots, and is the best time if but two fodderings of hay 
are given. If the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a matter of 
much consequence with which feeding the grain is given, only that the 
practice be uniform. 

It is also highly essential that there be regularity preserved in the amount 
fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon the 

* For the effect of the various esculents on the quantity and quality of the milk, see Liebig's Animal Cheoi. 

2E 



218 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

weather. The keener the cold, the more sheep will eat. In the South 
much would also depend upon the amount of grass obtained. In many 
places a light daily foddering would suffice — in others, a light foddeiing I 
placed in the depository racks once in two days would answer the purpose. 
In the steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to de- 
termine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering 
time. And this is the amount which should, as near as may be, be regu- 
larly fed. In feeding grain or roots there is no difficulty in preserving en- 
tire regularity, and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of 
the latter a sheep will not overeat and surfeit itself. Of the former it will. 
And if not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, but still over-plenteously, 
it will expect a like amount at the next feeding, and failing to receive it, 
will pine for it and manifest uneasiness. The effect of such irregulanty 
on the stomach and system of any animal is bad — and the sheep suffers \ 
more from it than any other animal. I would much rather that my flock ' 
receive no grain at all, than that they receive it without regard to regular- 
ity in the amount. The shepherd should be required to measure out the 
grain to sheep in all instances — instead of guesmtg it out — and to measure ,j 
it to each separate flock. 

Salt. — Sheep undoubtedly require salt in winter. Some salt their hay \ 
when it is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, as you thus I 
constitute yourself the judge, or controller in a matter, where the appetite 1 
of the sheep is a much safer guide. It may be left accessible to them in ! 
the salt-box (fig. 28) as in summer, or it is an excellent plan to give them an 1 
occasional feed of brined hay or straw. This last is done in warm thaw- ' 
ing weather, when their appetite is poor, and thus serves a double purpose. 
With a wisp of straw sprinkle a thin layer of straw with brine — then an- 
other layer of sti'aw and another sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until 
the next day, for the brine to be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to 
all the grazing animals on the farm which need salting. 

Water. — Unless sheep have access to succulent food or clean enow, 
water is indispensable. Constant access to a brook or spring is best, but 
in default of this, they should be watered, at least 07ice a day, in some other 
way. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 219 



LETTER XIV. 

ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



Character of American ovine veterinary works — of the English — Anatomical details of the latter valuable 
— necessity of cuttin" clear from their systems of pathology and therapeutics — rea'ons. ..Exciting causes 
of disease even in adjacent localities in England not the same — popular superstitions on the subject Ne- 
cessarily greater ditferences as between remote countries possessing diS'urent climates, etc.. ..Ravages of 
rot in Europe — scarcely known in most parts of America. ..Exciting causes apjjarently the same in both... 
Hoof ail, though retained here by contagion, not primaiily produced l)y the same causes as in England. .. 
Various European diseases not known here. . .Ditterencf in the paihology of the same diseases in this coun- 
ti'y and in England. . .The English ones accompanied with more inllammatury action — the American of an 
astlienio or sinking character . . Pathological difierences rr quire a corresponding difference in therapeutics 
.. .English system of therapeutics objectionable for the above reason — on account of its expensiveness — 
and, for popular purposes, by the extent of its pharmacopia;. . .The proper ovine veterinary system to be 
adopted— manner of classifying diseases. ..Anatomy of the tiheep — how far to be studied — directions to be- 
ginners. ..The Omentum The Rumen. . .The Reticulum — Tlie Maniplus. ..The Abomasum The func- 
tions of the different Stomachs. ..The Duodenum. ..The Jejunum. . .The Ileum. ..The Coecum...The 
Colon. ..The Rectum. ..The Mesentai-y. ..The process of digestion. ..The Spleen. ..The Pancreas.. .The 
Liver. ..The Kidneys. ..The Bladder. ..The Uterus and Vagina. 



Dear Sir : Most of the veterinary works which have appeared in this 
country in relation to the Sheep, Horse, and other domestic animals, have 
been made up simply of medical recipes ; or, if they have given systems 
of veterinary nosology and pathology, these systems have been mere tran- 
scripts of those of European, and particularly of English writers. 

I have examined all, 1 believe, of the most celebrated late English au- 
thors, scientific and empirical,* on the diseases of the Sheep and their 
cures. For anatomical and general pathological details, the works of some 
of the former possess gi-eat value, and compare favorably with the treatises 
on the same topics by the most eminent physicians and surgeons. This is 
particularly true of the work on Sheep by the late Mr. Youatt — the fount- 
ain-head from which most of the later English writers on the same subject 
have so liberally drawn, and will probably continue so to do for a century 
to come. For minute accuracy of description, particularly in the depart- 
ment of pathology — for elaborate research into both facts and authorities 
— for clearness and sparkling vivacity of style, this gentleman, it seems to 
me, is entirely without a competitor among the English veterinarians, and 
his works will bear reading alongside those of a Cooper, a Louis, and a 
Chapman. 

I have hesitated whether to transcribe entire Mr. Youatt's treatise on 
the Anatomy of the Sheep. It would be the sheerest affectation — not to 
say plagiarism — to publish a mere abridgment of his remarks, or their sub- 
Btance dressed up in other words, as some late English writers have done, 
for the purpose of setting up pretensions to that originality which Mr. You- 
att has left so little room for in this department. But as these Letters, Sir, 
are published for the benefit of the many, rather than to instruct those al- 
ready versed to any considerable extent in Veterinary Science, I have been 
led to doubt whether any systematic treatise on Anatomy is necessary. On 
the whole, I have come to the conclusion that farther than to exhibit the 



* I do not use the word "empirical" here in its Invidious sense. I mean to describe by it a class of 
writers versed in eiperiments meri-hi, as contradistinguished from those who possess a scientific knowledgo 
of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, &c. 



220 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

localities of disease, explain certain operations in the animal economy, and 
render terms intelligible, it would be time thrown away. 

In pathology somewhat, and to a much greater extent in the systems of ' 
therapeutics adopted, [ have found it necessary to cut clear from all Eng- 
lish ovine veterinarians. If this is regarded as presumptuous, I have only 
to say that the testimony or opinions of that man are worth little who so' 
far pins his faith on another's views, as to disregard the plain evidence of i: 
his own senses. The salutary rule of the law is, each witness testifies to' 
what lie has seen, and to what, crediting the assertions of his own senses, ^ 
Tic Icnoivs. It is for the investigating tribunal to decide what weight shall' 
be attached to the testimony. That tribunal, in the present case, is the 
public. 

But in reality, a discrepancy of views on the above subjects, does not ne- " 
cessarily imply an error on either side. The pathology of diseases fre- ' 
quently does not coincide, as between dlflFerent climates and countries, and I 
sometimes, singularly enough, between contiguous localities in the same' 
country. This is especially true as regards the origin or exciting cause i 
of disease. Where the atmospheric, alimentary, and all other observable i 
conditions ai'e nearly identical, occult causes which baffle the closest and i 
most scientific scrutiny, not unfrequently either periodically or regularly, i 
scourge man or beast with disease in one locality, while another one is al- \ 
most uniformly exempt from these attacks. What English pathologist, for i- 
example, has ever assigned a physical cause which would answer, quanti- , 
tatively, as a criterion to decide on the proportionable prevalence of the 
same malady in other regions — or the existence of which would even prove J 
that the disease existed at all — for the frequent appearance of goitre [bron- :i 
c/iOceZe) among the inhabitants of Derbyshire, and the comparative exemp- r 
lion from it of the inhabitants of contiguous counties %* The theatres of ( 
its especial visitation, in other parts of the world, seem to be equally de- 
termined by chance — though undoubtedly dependent upon physical causes ' 
which have as yet eluded observation. '! 

It is not astonishing, therefore, that the ignorant down to our own times, j 
and even the enlightened, until a period comparatively recent, should have \ 
sought the incomprehensible causes of many diseases, in the regions of the '.■ 
preteinatural. Among brutes especially, which were supposed to be more 
given up to such influences, these phenomena were conveniently assigned, 
by our English and Scotch ancestors, to 

" Bome dev'lish cantrip slight " I 

of " warlocks and witches " — the malevolence of an offended faiiy or spite- ' 
ful gnome.t 

* I understand that the inhabitants of the adjoining counties of Staiford, Nottingham and Leicester are j 
comparatively exempt from the attack of goitre. i 

t In Bums's inimitable Tam O'Shanter, some of the singular powers once exercised 

" by withered beldams auld and droll ' 

****** 

Lowping and flinging on a crummock" — 

and sometimes, though far more rarely, hy " ae winsome wench and walie," to turn aside the established j| 

laws of Nature and God's providence, are thus enumerated in describing one of the diabolical sisterhood: ili 

" Mony a beast to dead she shot, i 

And perished mony a bonny boat, I 

And shook haith meikle corn and bear, « 

And kept the country-side in fear." ■' 

No one will understnnd that the witch, in full league with the Devil, had any occasion for mortal fire- I 

arms, in "shooting"' the beasts of her victims. Murrain, and in some cases death, followed a glance of her , 

" evil eye." And even the witches of Burns are tame every-day bodies, compared with those which swell j 

the infernal dramatis peruana of Faust, or mingle in the gloomy horrors of Macbeth. ;j 

Two centuries ago, and even less, there was not a parish in England, a hill or del! in Scotland, or even a 
colonized nook in the wild woods of America, where witchcraft was not rife ; and mnltitiides in every rank 

in life were consigned to the gallows, the faggot, straugling, &c., for this crime, by the highest judicial tri- | 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 221 

Equally unphilosophical, and. not less mischievous in its effects on the 
j progress of medical science, are those religious views, widely prevalent 
1! even at the present day, which in every epizootic as well as epidemic 
J scourge, recognize only a direct Theocratic infliction, operating without 
\| the intervention of physical causes. If these doctrines do not, as when 
/I carried to their full extent among the Mussulmans — who yield a passive 
': non-resistance to plague and conflagration as the direct expression of God's 
I will — lead to an entire abandonment of remedial measures, they at least 
/ deter scrutiny into the inducing natural causes, and thus occasion a neglect 
! of all preventive, and a much less perfect understanding of appropriate 
fj remedial action. 

J Between countries widely separated — where their climates and other 
.j circumstances exhibit considerable differences — it would naturally be ex- 
jl pected that still greater discrepancies would appear in their local nosology. 
I England and the United States are subject to several corresponding ovine 
; diseases, yet it is notorious that some of the most destructive ones of the 
i former are unknown, or next to unknown, in the latter. The rot, accord- 
i ing to Mr. Youatt, destroys a million of sheep annually in the British Isl- 

■ bunals of England and Scotland — the former presided over by such men as Sir Matthew Hale ! One ap- 
proved method of detecting witches was to wrap the suspected persons in a sheet, the great toes and thumbs 
being tied together, and then dragging them through a pond or river. If they sank they were guiltless— if 
not, their fate is thus alluded to by Hudibras in his description of the monster Hopkins, the " Witch-finder 
j General" of England : 

" And has he not within a year 
Hanged threescore of them in one shire ? 
Some only for not being drowned ! " 
That miserable driveler and pedant, James V[. of Scotland, defended this "trial by water," inasmuch aa 
witches having renounced their baptism, so it is just that the element through which the holy rite is enforced, 
should reject them 1 This pusillanimous monarch, who shook at the sight of a drawn sword, was the keenest 
instigator in his kingdom of tortures and prosecutions for suspected witchcraft, and he continued so after 
his accession to the English throne. He was often present at the examination of accused persons, and the 
Scotch juries did not dare to acquit their victims, fearing the severest punishment on themselves for " will- 
ful error upon an assize," a proceeding which left them at the mercy of the Crown, and which was in some 
instances actually resorted to ! 

The elves or fairies, the dwarfs, etc., have sorely afflicted the shepherd, as well as all other husbandmen, 
in bygone days. Their caprices were innumerable. Even in this, as Mr. Carlyle would say, 19th century 
of God's world, the ugly and monster-headed Phaam is sometimes seen on the lonely Kells of Galloway, 
and the declivities of the eastern Grampians. He not unfrequently shows himself in the dawn of the morn- 
ing on the mountains around Cairn Gorm and Loehavin. and if man or beast even goes near the place where 
he has been before the sun shines upon it. straightway their heads swell enormously and they often die. — 
This is the origin of that frequent disease, the "swelled head" in sheep ! At least, so the inhabitants of 
those regions informed the Ettrick Shepherd. (See Hogg's Shepherd's Guide.) But alas ! for the gay and 
courtly Fairies — the very aristocracy of goblin-dom ! Who would not have his flocks, yea, and his herds 
too, annually decimated to restore them to our utihtarianized world ! Oberon, Titania, Mab, Puck and Ariel 
are gone ! They no longer 

" on the sands with printless foot 

Bo chase the ebbing Neptime, and do fly him 

When he comes back" 

no longer 

" in the spiced Indian air, by night, 

***** 
They dance their ringlets to the whistling wind." 

The elves of the colder regions north of the Alps, who erst danced their " roundel rites" on the banks of 
the Rhine and the green hillocks of Britain — who with their splendid appointments, coursers whose feet 
epumed the limber air, saddles of " rewel bone " 

"Bryht vrith mony a precious stone 
And compasyd all with crapste," 

outshone the splendors of Chivalry — who fought manful under shield, wounding and discomfiting even hu- 
man antagonists, aa related by Gervase of Tilbury, and by Heinrich von Ofterdingen in the Heldenbuch — 
who loved, wooed and were won much after the human fashion, and sometimes exchanged such favors 
with humanity, as is proved by the adventure of Thomas the Rymer under the " Elden tree " — all are gone ! 
The wands of Scott and of Bulwer could not stay their departure ! Naked, rugged-featured, unpoetical 
Utility has it all her own way now-a-days ! 

In the language of Rt. Rev. Dr. Corbett, Bishop of Oxford and Norwich in the beginning of the 17th 
century, 

" Lament, lament, old abbeys, 
The Fairies' lost command ; 
They did but chanee priests' babies. 
But some have changed your land ; 
And all your children sprung from hence 

Are now grown Puritans, 
Who live as changelings ever since 
For love of your domains." 



222 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

ands — and in 1830-1, the number swept off much exceeded two millions.* ; 
Its ravages are equally fatal in Germany, and more so in Egypt. It is ' 
also common in France, Spain, Austi'alia, &c. There is nothing sufficient- 
ly marked in its diagnosis to effectually distinguish it from some other dis- " 
eases, to a person possessing no previous practical acquaintance with it, i 
or no more veterinary knowledge than is common among farmers ; and ' 
when a slow train of wasting symptoms have occurred, and the structure ^ 
of the liver is found disorganized, after death, it is not uncommon in this \ 
country to pronounce it a case of the rot. The same mistake, according 
to Dr. Coventry (late Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edin- 
burgh), is often made by even the shepherds and flock-masters of Europe. t 
There are other diseases besides the rot which specifically attack the in- '' 
tegrity of the liver. Even fasciola or flukes in the liver, the most infalli- ' 
ble diagnostic, to the common eye, of the rot, also, according to Dr. Cov- 
entry, accompany hepatitis chronica. I will not take upon me to deny that 
the rot ever exists in the Northern States, but I have yet to see, or hear 
of, adequately authenticated, the first undoubted instance ; and this would 
go to show that if isolated cases of it do sometimes occur, it has dwindled 
from the wholesale destroyer of Europe to an obscure and occasional dis- 
ease. The same remarks apply to existence of the disease in the Southern 
Atlantic and Gulf States, judging from the statements of my coiTespond- 
ents, and from the agricultural newspapers. I cannot learn from either 
of these sources that anything analogous to this malady is common in those 
States. According to Mr. Cockerel, of Tennessee, and Mr. Flower, of Illi- 
nois, the rot does prevail in our Western States ; and the latter gentleman, 
who has, I presume, seen the disease in Europe, and who ought therefore 
to be familiar with its 'prai-morteTn and post-mortem appearances, states 
that it occurs in Southern Illinois " from suffering sheep to pasture on land 
that is overflowed with water ;" and he adds, " even a crop of green oats, 
early in the fall before a frost comes, has been known to rot young sheep." 

It is worthy of remark that Mr. Livingston — equally distinguished for 
research and observation — does not include the rot in his list of American 
ovine diseases. This affords a strong corroboration of the position I have 
assumed in relation to the existence of this disease in the North-eastern 
States, and those of the Southern ones lying east of the Apalachians.| 

The Hoof-ail, though introduced here by contagion, and kept in constant 
existence by the same means, does not appear, in the common phrase, to 
originate spontaneously , as in Europe ; or, in other words, to be excited by 
any other causes than contagion. I have never known an instance going, 
even colorably, to prove the contrary of this proposition. 

Acute dropsy or Red-water, I judge to be an exceedingly rare disease in 
the Northern States, though the author of the American Shepherd thinks 
differently.il 

Enteretis, or inflammation of the coats of the intestines ; blain, or in- 
flammation of the cellular tissue of the tongue ; and a whole train of other 
diseases — including most of the frightful list of infectious or contagious 
European epizootics — seem to be unknown in this country. 

Why there should be so wide a difference between the ovine nosology 
of Europe and the United States, is a matter of curious and interesting 
speculation. Whether it will always remain so, or whether the advent of 

* Youatt on Sheep, p. 445. 

t .See remarks of Dr. Coventry, quoted at pome length in Mountain Shepherd's Manual, p. 20. 

\ I limit tlie remark to the States lying (mostly) east of these mountains, because they would probably 
be the only ones, at the time at which Mr. Livingston wrote, with the Sheep Husbandry of which he would 
be supposed to be familiar. 

li American Shepherd, p. 359. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUT I. 223 



the European diseases is only delayed here for more artificial systems of 
feeding, breeding, or perhaps more artificial systems of Agriculture af- 
fecting the aliment of the sheep, or other and unexplainable causes, time 
alone must determine. 

If we look for these differences in the observable differences of climate, 
we find no satisfactoiy solution of the problem. The climate of England 
is essentially different from our own — but that it is a favorable one for the 
healthy development of all the animal tissues, her large, strong, long- 
hved population, as well as her well-developed animal kingdom, abun- 
dantly attest. The atmosphere of England is a moist and humid one, and 
moisture is thought to be one of the necessary predisposing causes of both 
rot and hoof-ail. Of the origin of the former disease, Mr. Youatt 
remarks : * 

" The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con- 
fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has 
reference to the evaporation of water, and to tlie presence and decomposition of moist veget- 
able matter. It is rai-ely, or almost never, on diy and sandy soils and in dry seasons ; it is 
rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that gi'ound is dried by the heat of 
the summer sun. or completely covered by the winter rain. In the same laiTn there are cer- 
tain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are others that seldom 
or never give the rot." 

Mr. Youatt continues his descriptions of these predisposing conditions 
at great length, and his final conclusion is, in substance, that the miasmata, 
or gases exhaling from the decomposition of vegetable substances, are the 
causes of the rot. Mr. Spooner adopts the same views ; indeed, they are 
universally received among scientific veterinarians. 

If these views are correct, the evil lies not in a generally humid atmo- 
sphere^ but in a generally or temporarily humid soil ; and that they are 
true quo ad hoc, is proved by the fearful ravages of the disease in the 
driest atmosphere of Germany, in the clear, dry atmosphere of the South 
of France, and under the torrid skies of southern Spain, where rain does 
not fall for months. 

Boggy or fenny soils, where decaying vegetable substances are con- 
stantly exhaling their gases, are to be found in all parts of the United 
States — more or less, in every township, and almost every school district 
of New-York and New- England. Sheep pasture on such lands, promis- 
cuously with other stock, in every county — and, in the latter States, at 
least, with entire impunity from the rot. 

Humidity of soil is also supposed to be the most prominent cause in 
originating hoof-ail, or producing it otherwise than by contagion. Mr. 
Youatt and Professor Dick attribute the disease most often to the effect 
of sand and dirt forced into the pores of the hoof, when macerated by 
moisture. The following is the language of Professor Dick: 

" The finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particularly liable to give this disease, 
and so are soft, marshy and luxuriant meadows. It exists to a greater or less extent in every 
situation that has a tendency to increase the growth of the hoofs without wearing them 

away The different parts of the hoof, deprived of their natural wear, grow out of 

then' proper proportions. The crust, especially, grows too long ; and the overgrown parts 
either break off in irregular rents, or by overshooting the sole allow small particles of sand 
and dirt to enter into the pores of the hoof. These particles soon reach the quick, and set 
up the inflammation already described and followed by all its destructive effects."! 

The same writer assigns another cause for it — inflammation induced by 
an improper bearing of the foot, caused by the unnatural growth of the horn 
on wet pastures. 

Mr. Spooner attributes the disease to decaying vegetables — " roots and 



* Youatt on Sheep, p. 451. t See Dick, quoted by Youatt, p. 527, 528. 



224 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

leaves of tlie grasses in a state of rottenness " — brought in contact with the 
sheep's foot when " blanched and weakened by continual moisture ! " * 

There is another point of difterence in the pathology of ovine diseases 
in this and the old world, judging from the details furnished by the Eng- 
lish veterinarians. Most of the pyrexia! diseases, in England, are accom- 
panied, at least in their initiatory stages, with active inflammatory symp- 
toms. Fever runs high, and decidedly antiphlogistic treatment is called 
for. On the other hand, so far as my observation and inquiries have ex- 
tended, the ovine diseases of the United States are usually of an asthenic 
nature — characterized by debility from the outset. The difference in the 
physical character, feeding, and ordinary state of fatness of the sheep of 
the two countries, offers, perhaps, a sufficient explanation of these facts. 
The gross, high-fed English sheep, forced forward by bountiful feeding to 
an unnaturally precocious maturity, is always in a high state of plethora, 
and predisposed, therefore, to inflammatory action. A slight derangement 
of any function, produced by a cold, by an error in feeding, or by any othei" 
causes, is sufficient to make the organs exercising those functions the seat of 
such action. On the other hand, the sheep of the United States, kept mainly 
for wool-growing purposes, is rarely raised above a moderately fleshy or 
medium condition. And, unexcited by an unnaturally plethoric habit, the 
weak vascular and muscular system of the animal little predisposes it to 
inflammatory disease. 

A difterence in the pathological character of disease requires a con'e- 
sponding difference in the system of therapeutics adopted. The English 
system of therapeutics is decidedly objectionable, here, first, on the ac- 
count just named ; secondly, from its expensiveness ; and, thirdly, (for 
popular purposes,) by the extent and complexity of its pharmacology. 

1. As has been already remarked, most of the English ovine diseases 
commence with pyrexiae — and the fever is synochal or inflammatory in its 
type. The subject is strong, plethoric, and full of blood. Antiphlogistic 
treatment is clearly called for. Accordingly, depletion, by bleeding or 
purgatives, or both, is first and promptly resorted to by the English veteri- 
narian. In the United States, also, most important constitutional diseases 
commence with pyrexia3, but the fever in its first discovered stage is almost 
uniformly of a low, sinking, typhoid type, accompanied with great pros- 
tration of muscular energy. The animal is in a leanish or only moder- 
ately fleshy condition. It has been confined to dry, and perhaps rather 
unnutritious food — for most of the list of constitutional maladies, here, 
make their attacks in the winter, and old, lean, and feeble sheep are usu- 
ally the first victims. A sheep is observed drooping, and indiflferent to 
food. It is caught and examined. Whatever organ or portion of the sys- 
tem is laboring under attack, bleed so as to produce a constitutional im- 
pression, (which the English veterinarians almost invariably recommend, 
where they I'ecommend bleeding at all,) and follow this with an active 
purgative, and in four cases out of five the sheep will, in the expressive 
phrase of the English shepherds, " take the ground " ; it will never rise 
from the ground more without assistance, and will soon become unable to 
stand when set upon its feet. Growing weaker and weaker, it soon re- 
fuses to eat, and death supervenes. These remarks are not designed to 
apply to stall-fed wethers, or other very high-conditioned sheep. 

2. The English, and indeed the European method of treating diseases 
is too expensive for this country. In curing hoof-ail, e. g., Mr. Youatt, after 
recommending washing in chloride of lime, and cauterizing, says : 

* This seems to rat a most unphilosophical cause to be asBigned by a veterinarian of the standing of Mr. 
Spooner. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 225 

" If the foot has been in a manner stripped of its horn, and especially if a considerable por- 
tion of the sole has been removed, it may be expedient to wrap a little clean tow round 
the foot, and to bind it tightly down with a tape, the sheep being removed to a straw-yard, 

or some inclosed space, or to a drier pasture The fool should he dressed every day, 

each new separation of horn removed, and every portion of the fungus submitted to the 
caustic."' * 

Mr. Spooner recommends daily, and not less troublesome tieatment.t 
The Mountain Shepherd's Manual recommends daily treatment,| and this 
is the case, I believe, with nearly all, if not all, of the foreign ve;;erinarians. 
Professor Pictet, of Switzerland, in addition to daily applications, fumiga- 
tions, etc., innumerable, goes a step beyond " low pledgets and tape band- 
ages." He says : 

" In oi-der to prevent any dirt, &c., from getting into the wound, the diseased foot should 
be placed in a little boot, the sole of which is of ieather or felt, and the uj)per part of cloth, 
iu order to fasten it round the leg of the sheep." 

This disease rages most when haying and harvesting are at their bight, 
in the Northern States — in July and August — and when the labor of day 
hands costs from seventy-five cents to a dollar per head per diem. Half 
the flocks in the country can then be bought for $1 25 per head. How 
soon daily parings, cauterizings, embrocations, fumigations, etc., including 
the expense of drugs and Professor Pictet's gaiter-boots, would reach an 
expense equivalent to the price of a sound slieep, it requires not the exer- 
cise of much arithmetic to determine ! It would certainly be more eco- 
nomical to kill sheep of any ordinary grade in the first instance ! 

The same remark will apply to the English system of treating nearly 
all important diseases. The labor bestowed on it would be worth more, 
here, than the value of the sheep. 

3. The English ovine veterinary pharmacopaeia is too extensive and 
complex for popular use. The prescribed formulae are so compound in 
their character — so minute oftentimes in their quantitative proportions — re- 
quire so much skill for their chemical and mechanical admixture — and, 
lastly, and moi'e important than all the rest, they demand so much med- 
ical knowledge for their proper and timely administration — that they can 
be generally used with safety and advantage only by professional veteri- 
narians, a class entirely wanting, unless occasionally in cities, in the United 
States. Besides, our ordinary country drug-stores are usually lacking in 
many of the articles included in the European prescriptions[| — and no one, 
without possessing considerable medical knowledge, could decide what 
effect it would have on the prescription to subtract this or that ingredient. 
It might neutralize its effects, or even render it pernicious. 

A veterinary system for anything like popular use, in this country, must 
be exceedingly simple in its remedies, and in its rules for their administra- 
tion. As it is impossible to describe the various symptoms which may 
exhibit themselves in a disease, so as to be understood by all, it is unsafe 
to prescribe a constant change of medicines, applicable to the several 
states which have caused those symptoms to appear. Indeed, changes in 
medicine should only be made consequent on those distinct crises of dis- 
ease which can be detected and understood by the most ordinary observer. 
Prescriptions, therefore, inapplicable, or at least unsafe, in any stage //-ow 
one distinct crisis of disease to another, should, as far as practicable, be 
avoided. True, such a system of therapeutics will be very imperfect, par- 
ticularly in the treatment of serious constitutional maladies. But it will go 



* Yonatt, p. 529. t Spooner, (endorsing the views of Ur. Read,) p. 438 to 442. 

% Qui-m vide, p. 27. 

II Not unfrequently the most importemt ones, as I know from repeated experience. 

2F 



226 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

as far as the knowledge of the uninstracted practitioner will safely admit 
of — and if, even in cases of constitutional disease, it should sini])ly cause 
him to do no hurt by his interference, and prevent him from resorting to 
some miserably ignorant empiric* — the most important object, perhaps, 
would be attained. It is infinitely safer in such diseases to rely on unaided 
Nature to effect the cure, than to submit a sheep, or any other animal, to 
the drugging and dosing of a person ignorant of the true nature of the 
disease, and of the remedies which he employs. It is better to do too lit- 
tle than to do too much; and in all cases where it is not known what to do, 
it is better to do nothing. 

Lord Western, in a letter to Mr. BischofF, says :t 

" I liave little to say on the medical treatment of sheep ; my etiidy is prevention by suffi- 
cient wholesome food, witli a cotjsiant and abundant supply of salt in every yard and every 

field When slieep are taken ill, there is little \\o\ye for them, and rarely any use iu 

administering medicines." 

If the latter portion of this remark is true among the educated, intelli- 
gent and experienced veterinarians of England, how much more must it 
be so among those destitute of even the fii-st i-udiments of veteiinaiy sci- 
ence ! In relation to some of the more serious constitutional maladies, af- 
ter considerable experience and observation, I feel constrained to express 
the opinion that the remark is, to a considerable extent, true. The sheep 
is almost as unsatisfactory a patient to deal with, in some such cases, 
as the hog, of which it is frequently said, with no great exaggeration, 
" that if he is seriously sick he is sure to die, and the more you do 
for him the sooner he will die ! " " Then why give a therapeutic system 
at all in a class of diseases where it will do so little good % " In the first 
place, the cases are perhaps few where judicious prescriptions will not 
someivhat diminish the tendency to a fatal result ; but the great reason, 
after all, is, that every man having a sick anitnal tcill dose and physic it, 
or will permit some officious neighbor to ilo so, or will call in that most 
dangerous of all ejiizootics, the cattle-doctor. It is therefore better in the 
most hopeless cases, to give a few simple directions, based on sound med- 
ical principles, which will not, at all events, aggravate the disease, and 
which will tend, to alleviate or suppress it, rather than to surrender the 
helpless animal over to the additional tortures inflicted by ignoi^nce and 
quackery. Fortunate it is that well-managed sheep, in this country, are 
so little subject to such diseases ! 

In classifying diseases, I shall depart from the system adopted by You- 
att, Spooner, etc., who arrange tbem with reference to the parts of the sys- 
tem they more especially attack, as, for example, " diseases of the brain," 

* The self-matricTilated " csttle ^octor^ is a decidedly intereeting perponsge. His qualifications are nu- 
merous, and it is somewhat difficult to find them sll brilliantly combined in the same person. He should 
be the most ignorant man in the town, particularly in everything relating to the anatomy and physiology 
of man or beast. He should he equally ieuorant of the chemical and medicinal properties of nearly all the 
drucs used by him. His prescriptions, to give tliem due potency, should consist of a gicat number of in- 
gredients a large portion of them bearing reiy "hard vamrs." He should flank and fortify these, at least 

in all difficult cases, with substances possessing rare occtdt virtues, entirely unknown to "human physi- 
cians," such as the " blood ol black cats," the -entrails of fowls," "human fasces," simplea culled under pe- 
culiar circumstances — 

"Root of hemSock, digged i' the dark, 

* * * slips of yew. 

Slivered in the moon's eclipse." 

He should decidedly aflfect the mysterious, and should always repel the attempted intrusions of ordinary 
humanity— the profane vulgar— into the arcana of his high art. He should have half a dozen maladies, such 
as"l)aked in the manyfolds," " overflow of the gall." " kidney disease." "rising of the lights," " strained 
across the loin." etc.. to which he can promptly assicm nil the ills which beasts are heir to. He shoujd 
never mistake a disease or a remedy. If the patient dies, it should invariably be in consequence of a 
deviation from his directions ! 
t Bischofl", vol. ii. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 227 

" diseases of the digestive organs," &c. This method of classification, 
though not without its advantages, and though it would seem, at first view, 
to present an arrangement most convenient for reference, examination and 
comparison, in the end, leads, I think, to confusion and misunderstanding. 



ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP. 

He who breeds sheep to any considerable extent, should make himself 
familiar with the anatomical structure of some of the parts of the animal — 
particularly with the arrangement, size, natural appearance, consistency 
and contents of the several viscera ; to some extent with the circulatory 
system ; with the alimentary and respiratory organs ; with the brain, and 
the whole osseous structure of the head. He should be in the constant 
habit of making more or less extended examinations of all these structures, 
as opportunity occurs by the slaughter of sheep for economic purposes ; 
and when the animal dies from disease, such examination should be in no 
ordinary case omitted by the flock-master who is desirous of making him- 
self thoroughly acquainted with his business. He will require some instruc- 
tion, in the outset, to enable him to make such dissections understandingly 
and properly ; but he can readily obtain this from any educated physician 
or surgeon. There are no sufficiently wide differences in the anatomical 
sti'ucture of the sheep and of the human being, to give the surgeon the 
least difficulty in pointing out the arrangement, uses, &c., of the several 
parts of the former, unless it be in the conformation of the stomachs. — 
Here, the structure of the sheep, like that of other ruminating animals, dif- 
fers widely from man, but that physician or surgeon must have been singu- 
larly limited in his physiological investigations, who has not made himself 
acquainted with it. At all events, a glance at a veterinary work, while 
conducting a dissection, will enable him to understand, and explain it to 
the learner. The learner while making his examinations in company with, 
and under the direction of the surgeon, should ^er/o;-m every manipuJation : 
his own hand should handle, remove, test the consistency, &;c. of the parts 
— alone wield the saw and guide the scalpel. This is an important rule if 
he would understand and rememher. 

The subjects of a portion of the examinations should be sheep killed in 
full health. It is necessary to be familiar with the healthy appearance of 
all the parts, so as to distinctly recognize all departures from it — the effect 
of any diseased or abnormal action. 

The sides of a lean sheep are more translucent, after being skinned, than 
those of a fat one, and therefore the former makes a better subject, if the 
circulatory system is to be examined. On the sides of the thorax and ab- 
domen, at a little distance from the spine, the veins and arteries of those 
parts can often be traced with beautiful distinctness, without any dissection 
of the intercostal muscles. 

Subjects should be examined which have had their blood drawn (by hav- 
ing their throats cut), and also those which have died with all their blood 
in them. Some of the viscera — e. g. the lungs, veins and arteries — will 
present very different appearances under these different circumstances ; 
and this fact not understood might frequently lead to very erroneous con- 
clusions in jx^st mortem examinations. 

I will give a very general description of the parts I have mentioned as 
necessary to be studied — designed merely for those who have no previous 
knowledge of the subject. 

After the animal has been neatly skinned, place it on a low table, an as- 
sistant grasping its fore-legs, and holding it firmly on its back. Then slit 



228 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



open the belly from the middle of the sterni/m, or cartilaginous connection 
between the ribs, to the anus. In making this and all similar incisions, 
hold the edge of the knife upward, guarding its point with the fore-finger, 
so that the viscera shall not be wounded. The abdomen — the whole cav- 
ity of the trunk back of the diaphragm or " midriff" — is now laid open. 
It is usually necessary for a better examination of the parts to make cross 
incisions part way between the diaphragm and anus, extending down on 
each side several inches toward the backbone. 

I shall describe the viscera in the order in which I have usually exam- 
ined them. 

On opening the abdomen the omentum or caul is found covering the in- 
testines. It is a thin, and, in a normal state, colorless and transparent 
structure, formed of two membranes, between which extend streaks of fat 
in the form of a net. 

The external appearance of the stomachs is given in the following cut 
of those of a young sheep which died of disease. Their arrangement is 
slightly different in the animal. 



Fig. 4T. 




THE STOMACHS. 

a. The oesophagus or gullet, entering the rumen or paunch. 

b. b. The rumen, or paunch, occupying ihree-fourths of the abdomen. 
c The reticulum, or honeycomb — the 2d stomach. 

d. The maniplua, or many folds— the 3d stomach. 

e. The abomasum, or 4th stomach. 

/. The commencement of the duodenum or first intestine. 

g. The place of the pylorus, a valve which separates the contents of the abomasum and duodemim. 

The walls of the rumen or paunch consist of four coats or tunics — 1st, 
the peritoneal or outer coat ; 2d, the muscular ; 3d, the mucous, covered 
with papillae, or little piotuberances, from which (or glands under which) 
is secreted a peculiar fluid to soften and prepare the food for re-mastica- 
tion ; and, 4th, the inner or cuticular coat, a thin, entirely insensible mem- 
brane, which defends the mucous coat from abrasion or erosion. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 229 

The reticulum or honey-comb is composed of the same number of coats, 
fulfilling similar functions. But the mucous coat, in addition to minute 
papillae, is covered with elevations arranged in pentagons and sexagons 
of different sizes, somewhat resembling a honey-comb, except that the 
cells are larger and shallower. 

The raaniplus has the same four coats. Its floor is a continuation of 
the cEsophagean canal. From its roof depend many parallel folds of the 
cuticular coat — here thicker and stronger than in the other stomachs — 
reaching nearly to its floor. The cuticle is covered toward the edges of 
the folds, with hard, bony processes, shaped like fangs, or cones bent in a 
curvelinear form, and pointing toward the entrance of the stomach. The 
interior of each fold or leaf contains muscles which impart to it the power 
of a peculiar and forcible motion. There are forty-two of these folds in 
the maniplus of the sheep — occasionally forty-eight. They do not all 
equally nearly approach the oesophagean canal, but are disposed in gi'oups 
of six — one of the central ones of each nearly reaching the canal or floor 
of the stomach — the others on each side growing shorter and shorter, so 
as to form a series of irregular reentering angles. 

The abomasum is the digesting stomach, where the gastric juices are 
secreted, and where the pultaceous food is converted into chyme. It is 
funnel-shaped, and its lower extremity connects with the intestines, as 
shown in the cut. The cuticular lining of the three preceding stomachs 
is wanting in this. The mucous coat is disposed in the form of rugcs or 
shallow folds, arranged longitudinally with the direction of the stomach, 
and from this membrane the gastric juices are secreted. 

The comparative size of the four stomachs will be sufficiently seen in 
fig. 47. 

Where the oesophagus enters the rumen, it terminates in what is called 
the oesophagean canal, a continuation of the former constituting the roof 
of the latter. The bottom or floor of this canal is formed of divided por- 
tions or folds of the upper parts of the rumen and reticulum — muscular 
"pillars" or "lips," as they are sometimes denominated — which may re- 
main closed so that the food will pass over them into the third and fourth 
stomachs — or they may open, permitting the food to fall between them, 
as through a trap-door, into the first and second stomachs. It is probable 
that the opening of these lips, as food passes over them, depends some- 
what upon a mechanical effect, and somewhat upon the will of the animal. 
Fluid and soft pultaceous food fit for immediate digestion glide over them. 
But most of the food of the sheep, like that of other ruminating animals, 
is swallowed with little preparatory mastication ; and these untriturated 
solids drop down through the first opening above described into the ru- 
men. It is certain, however, that the animal can, at will, also cause water 
to pass through the opening into the first stomach. This would be neces- 
sary in the animal economy, and the water is always found there. 

When the food has entered the rumen, the muscular action of that vis- 
cus compels it to make the circuit of its different compartments, and, in 
time, the food later swallowed forces it on and up to near the opening 
where it originally entered. In its passage it is macerated by a solvent 
alkaline fluid secreted by the mucous coat. The papillae of that coat are 
supposed to influence the mechanical action of the contents of the stomach, 
and perhaps, to a certain extent, to aid in triturating them. The food 
performs the circuit of the stomach, and is ready for re-mastication, ac- 
cording to Spallanzani, in from sixteen to eighteen hours. By a muscular 
effort of the stomach, a portion of it is then thrown over the membraneous 
valve or fold which guards the opening fiom this into the second stomach. 



230 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The reticulum contracts upon it, forming it into a suitable pellet to be re- 
turned to the mouth, and also covers it with a mucus secreted in this 
stomach. By a spasmodic effort (always perceptible externally when the 
sheep or cow commences rumination) the pellet is forced through the roof 
of the reticulum, by the opening before described, and returned to the 
mouth by the contractions of the spiral muscle of the oesophagus or gullet, 
for mastication. 

This explanation of the functions of the second stomach is not accepted 
by all the physiologists who have examined this subject. Some contend 
that all the solider portions of the food are returned directly from the ru- 
men for re-mastication ; that when raised to the floor of the cesophagean 
canal, the hard parts are carried up to the mouth — the more pultaceous 
ones (but still not sufiiciently pultaceous for the fourth stomach) passing 
into the reticulum, where they are again macerated — the fluid squeezed 
out of them by a contraction of the stomach and allowed to pass on to 
the fourth stomach — and then the drier parts raised, like those fi-om the 
paimch, for re-raastication. More solid and indigestible substances " may 
be submitted two or more times to the process of rumination." Such ap- 
pear to be the views of Mr. Spooner.* 

According to this theory, both stomachs are created substantially for 
one and the same purpose, and one would seem to be unnecessary. And 
where would be the use of the opening from one stomach into the other t 
And if the second stomach, like the first, is simply for the maceration and 
return of food, why the superior thickness and strength of the coatings of 
the former 1 Being of a volume greatly inferior to that of the latter, it cer- 
tainly would require less strength, if the functions of both were the same. 

The main support for this, as it seems to me, erroneous theory, is found 
in the fact that the contents of the reticulum, after death, are usually found 
considerably tnore fiuid than those of the rumen. I conceive that but 
small portions of solid food are introduced at one time from the rumen 
into the reticulum — not enough to give to the liquid contents of the latter 
viscus the consistency of those of the former — proceeding on the supposi- 
tion that the reticulum of the living animal is filled with fluid, as usually 
found after death. But why may not a portion of this fluid have escaped 
by the valve — been decanted, as it were, from the paunch to the reticulum, 
after death ? I see no violence in this supposition. If this is not so, the 
vniform fluidity of the contents of the reticulum would be, it seems to me, 
fatal to the theory based on it — for, according to Spooner and others who 
adopt it, after the reticulum has " become moderately full," it contracts on 
its contents, expressing the liquid from the solid parts, which said liquid 
is forced into the cesophagean canal, and escapes into the fourth stomach. 
The solid parts would be thus left comparatively dry. Sheep penned up for 
butchery often do, as every one has observed, ruminate until within a iew 
seconds of the time that all their natural visceral functions are suddenly 
suspended by death — and when, therefore, this suspension would, at times, 
as a matter of course, take place at all the different stages of rumination and 
preparation for rumination — how happens it that the reticulum is not often 
found with its liquid parts expressed — containing nothing but the solids, just 
prepared for re-mastication ] Or if it be supposed that the act of forcing out 
the liquid, and forcing up the solids into the oesophagus, are coincident or 
simultaneous, why is not this stomach sometimes found entirely em.'pty ? Can 
it be supposed that this fluid (I have vviformly foimd the fluid mixed with 
considerable quantities of the solid food) is so instantaneously re-supplied ? 



Spooner, p. 162-3. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 231 

If so, by what process 1 I think there are other reasons which support 
the view I have taken, but I will not push the discussion, there not being, 
so far as I am aware, any questions to be solved by it which directly and 
practically aflect the interests or the practices of the sheep-breeder. 

Let us now observe the course pursued by the food, and the process to 
which it is submitted, after rumination. It now glides over the trap-doors 
which open into the first and second stomachs. As it passes over the 
floor of the third, or the maniplus, the pendant leaves of this viscus, armed 
with their beak-like protuberances, seize the advancing mass, and squeezing 
out the fluid and the more finely comminuted portions of the food which 
escape with it, commence triturating the bulkier fibrous portions between 
their folds. Their bony papillae give to these folds something of the me- 
chanical action of I'asps, in grinding down the vegetable fibre. The food 
being now reduced to an entirely pultaceous state, passes into the fourth 
stomach, or abomasum, where it is acted upon by the gastric juice, and 
converted into chyme. The amount of food found between the folds of 
the maniplus, after death, depends upon the time that has elapsed since 
rumination. It is dry and hard, compared with the contents of the other 
stomachs. 

The entrance to the fourth stomach — the cardiac opening — is closed 
against regurgitation or vomiting, by a sort of valve, composed of a portion 
of one of the rugce, before alluded to, which line the interior of this 
stomach. The pylorus is also closed by a valve, which prevents a prema- 
ture passage of the contents of the stomach into the intestines. 

The intestines are exhibited in fig. 48, copied from Mr. Youatt's work. 

Before the duodenum enters into (or changes its name to) the jejunum, 
and about 18 inches from the pylorus, it is perforated by the biliary duct — 
ductus choledochus — which brings the bile eliminated by the liver, from the 
gall-bladder, and also the fluid which is secreted by lh.e pancreas, or sweet- 
bread, which last is introduced into the biliary duct two inches from its 
entrance into the duodenum, by another duct or small tube. The com- 
pound fluid thus introduced into the duodenum exercises various important 
offices in the digestive and assimilating processes. The bile is supposed 
to aid in the separation of the chyme into chyle and fecal matter — or the 
nutiitive parts of the food which are assimilated into blood, from the in- 
nutritious parts which are discharged as excrement. It also prevents a 
putrid decomposition of the vegetable contents of the intestines, and serves 
various other useful purposes. 

The chyle — a white albuminous fluid, with a composition differing but 
little from that of blood — is taken from the intestines by a multitude of 
minute ducts called lacteals, which traverse the mesentary, constantly 
uniting as they advance, so as to form larger ducts. These enter the 
mesenteric glands — small glandular bodies attached to the mesentary — after 
the passage of which the chyle begins to change its color. The lacteals 
still continue to unite and enlarge, and finally terminate in the thoracic 
duct. In this the chyle is mingled with the lymph secreted from a portion 
of the lymphatics — another exceedingly minute system of absorbent ducts, 
w^hich open on the internal and external surfaces of the whole system. 
From the thoracic duct, the chyle is conveyed to the heart, and enters into 
the circulation as blood. 



The Spleen. — With the appearance of the spleen or milt — in the sheep 
a dark, firm, spongy viscus, attached to the rumen, and lying on the left 
side of tlie belly — aU are sufficiently familiar. Its uses and functions in 



232 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



the animal economy are not well understood, and it has in some instances 
been removed from the living animal without the apparent derangement 

Fig. 48. 




THE INTESIINES AND MESENTARY. 

1. The duodenum. 2. The jejunum. 3. The ileum 

4. The C(vcum, being the anterior prolongation of the colon, or first large intestine. The ileum opens 
into this (on the hack side as presented in llie cut), about twelve inches from its extremity — the 
opening being defended by a valve. 
5 The large nnterior portion of the colon, retaining its size (about three times that of the smaller intes- 
tines) for about two feet. 

6.6. The colon tending toward the center. 

7.7. The returning convnhition.s of the colon. 

8. The rectum or straight gut, communicating with the anus. 
9.9. The met'entary, or that portion of the peritoneum which retains the intestines in their places. 
1(1. The portion of the mesentary supporting the colon, &c. 
The united length of these intestines is upward of sixty feet ! 

of any function. Mr. Youatt conjectures that its main office is to supply 
the coloring matter of the blood. 

Thk Pancreas. — The pancreas or sweet-bread, with the appearance of 
which all who have noticed the entrails of a sheep, are also familiar, is a 
glandular body found on the left side of the belly. It has a series of 
ducts which unite into a larger one, and, as before stated, this discharges 
a transparent, albuminous, and somewhat acid fluid into the biliary duct 
near the point where it enters the duodenum. This fluid acts some un- 
known, but probably necessary part in preparing the chyme for the offices 
it is to peiform in the animal economy. 

The Liver. — The liver is much larger in proportion, in the sheep, than 
in tlie horse and ox ; and it is twice the proportionate size of that of Man. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 233 

It is situated mostly on the right side, between the maniplus and dia- 
phragm. It is suppHed with arterial blood, and receives the venous blood 
■which is conveyed from the intestines, from which it separates the bile, 
and conveys it to the gall-bladder. The bile having undergone cei'tain 
changes in this bladder, is conveyed, as already stated, by the biliary duct, 
to the duodenum. The venous blood, after the gall is separated from it, 
is returned to the lungs, to undergo the process which fits ft again to en- 
ter into the circulation. 

THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. 

Though it might seem the more natural order to complete the examina- 
tion of the circulatory and respiratory organs, before taking up those 
named at the head of this paragraph, I shall, adhering to my first arrange- 
ment to follow the order which I have uniformly pursued in making dis- 
sections, first complete the description of those of the abdominal cavity. 

The Kidnf.ys. — The kidneys are two bean-shaped glands firmly attached 
to the roof of the abdomen, and usually imbedded in fat. They are sup- 
plied with blood by large arteries, and, having filtered out the urine from 
it, they discharge the latter through two ducts, termed ureters, into the 
bladder. The passage of these ducts through the walls of the latter is in 
an oblique course, so that it is closed by pressure from within, and thus 
the urine cannot return. 

The Bladder. — The bladder joins the urethra, in the pelvis, and its pos- 
terior part is attached to the floor of that cavity. The anterior part, where 
the diameter is larger, floats free in the abdomen. A circular muscle or 
sphincter closes the entrance into the urethi-a, to prevent the continuous 
escape of the urine, and this relaxes when the muscular coat of the bladder 
contracts for the periodical expulsion of that fluid. The urethra is but a 
few inches long in the ewe, and opens into the vagina. It is much longer 
in the ram, as it extends the whole length of the penis. 

The Uterus and Vagina. — The vagina is several inches in length and 
opens into the uterus or womb by a circular opening which becomes closed 
after impi-egnation. They are situated between the rectum above, and the 
bladder below. They are mostly within the pelvis in the unpregnant ani- 
mal, but the womb rises into the abdomen when it encloses a foetus. The 
womb is a cylindrical body with two " horns " or branches. At the interior 
extremity of each horn are protuberances, of a red color, called ovaries, 
which are supposed to contain the germs of the offspring. 



234 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER XV. \ 

ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP (Continued)— DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, j 

The ThorHcic Viscera. ..The Diaphragm.. .The Thorax... The Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins... » 
The Lun"9...The Windpipe, Larynx and Phnryiix. . .The Thyroid and Parotid Glands. . .Tlie Head and 
its structures... The Krain.. The Nerves. ..The Teeth. ..The Lower Extremities. ..The Hitiex Canal. .. i 
Febrile diseases— those of Europe which are not common here. . .Ophthalmia— popular remedies— proper 5 
treatment- . .Pneumonia— symptoms— Mr. Spooner's prescription for. . . Bronchitis -symptoms— treatment j! 
...Catarrh— ordinarily not dangerous— preventives. .. Malif;nant Epizootic Catarrh — pievalence in the .; 
Northern States— character of the disease has not been understood— prevalence in author's flock— how j: 
produced — symptoms — post-mortem appearances— cliaracter of the disease ascertained— Nosology — ! 
treatment, &c. ..The Rot— its diaunosis — post-mortem appearances — description of the Fluke — causes of 
the Rot— treatment. ..Diarrhea— cause— diagnosis— treatment. ..Dysentery— cause— ditference between ^ 
it and diarrhea- treatment.-.Garget— seat and origin of the disease— treatment .. .Nervous Diseases... \ 
Apoplexy— unrecognized cases of it— several cases detailed— symptoms— treatment. . .Phrenitis. ..Tet- ''; 
anus... Epilepsy... Kabies... Neither of them common in this country .. .Paralysis — symptoms — treat- 
ment... Colic— symptoms — attributed to intussusception — true cause— treatment. ■ 

Among these, for convenience, I will include the diaphragm. '. 

The Diaphragm. — The diaphragm or midriff is a muscle extending en- \ 

tirely across the inner cavity of the body, separating the abdomen from \ 

the thorax or chest. Its structure is unique, and beautifully adapted to the i 

functions it has to perform. Its outer margin is muscular, giving it thene- ; 

cessary power of contraction, while toward the middle it changes into a i 

transparent tendonous substance. Through this teudonous substance pass . 

the oesophagus, the aorta, and the vena cava. '^ 

If the parts of the diaphragm which immediately surround these vessels j 

had been muscular, every contraction of the former in the act of respira- \ 

tion, would have compressed the latter, and therefore interfered with the -y 
passage of the food to the stomach, and the circulation of the blood. In a 

state of rest the diaphragm is convex toward the thorax. When contract- j 

ed and flattened, therefore, it enlarges the cavity of the thorax, and air | 

rushes into the lungs. Its alternate contractions and relaxations mainly : 

produce the act of respiration or breathing. ' 

The Thorax. — Without injuiing the diaphragm, divide the sternum and j 

brisket of the sheep longitudinally through the center, with a fine saw, and ] 
on pulling the lower extremity of the ribs slightly apart, the thorax will be 

disclosed in its natural arrangement. It consists of three cavities, formed by '; 

the doublings of the pleura, a thin serous membrane, which lines the whole • 

interior of the chest. Two outer and larger cavities (the right one being , 

the largest), contain the lungs — a third and smaller one, lying between the ' 

posterior portions of the former, contains the heart. The oesophagus pass- j 

es through the upper portion of the thorax, over the lungs and heart, and j 

between them and the spine, to the lower portion of the neck. ) 

The Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins. — With the size and 

general appearance of the heart, all are familiar. Enclosed in a mem- ) 

braneous sac — the j^aricardinvi — it hangs suspended by its superior attach- , 

ments to the roof of the thorax, its lower extremity nearly reaching to its 'j 

floor, and pointing toward the left side. The heart has two cavities on | 

each side, termed auricles and ventricles. The chyle and venous blood are ' 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 235 

I discharged into the right auricle, and thence into the right ventricle. By 

: the contraction of the latter, its contents are forced through the pulmona- 

i ry artery into the lungs. The blood having been purified in the lungs, is 

returned to the left auricle ; thence into the left ventricle ; and it is then 

forced into the aorta, or large artery which supplies, by its different 

branches, all parts of the system with blood. Each compartment of the 

heart is furnished with appropriate valves to cause the blood to be forced 

furivard in its regular course, by the muscular contractions of this viscus. 

These contractions are the result of an inherent and independent power. 

The contractions of the heart force the blood into and along the arteries. 
When this force begins to be spent as the distance from the heait in- 
creases, it receives aid from the action of the muscular coat of the arteries 
themselves, which forces along the blood to their utTiiost extremities. 

The arteries continue to branch off into more and more minute divisions 
as they recede from the heart, until the tubes are much less in diameter 
than the finest hair. These, capillaries as they are called, open by exceed- 
ingly minute mouths in every part of the frame, for the deposition of those 
secretions from the blood which maintain the vitality and healthy action 
of the parts, supply the animal waste, &c. 

The capillaries, commencing their return toward the heart, constantly 
reunite, forming larger tubes which are called veins, which bring back 
such portions of the blood carried out by the arteries, as has not been ex- 
pended in nourishing the system. The blood now deprived of its oxygen, 
and loaded with carbon, is unfit for farther circulation until re-purified iu 
the lungs. It is of a darker color than the arterial blood. It is no longer 
urged on by the contractile power of the tubes through which it flows, but 
by the partial vacuum formed in the right auricle (as at each contraction 
it forces its contents into the right ventricle,) and by atmospheric 
pressure. 

The Lungs. — The lungs are bodies composed of separate minute air- 
cells, communicating with the bronchial tubes, or subdivisions of the wind- 
pipe. They also contain many arteries, and veins. On the delicate mem- 
braneous walls of the air-cells the venous blood is cairied by innumerable 
tubes so thin as to permit their contents to be acted upon by the atmos- 
pheric air which fills the cells at every inspiration. Here the blood gives 
off its carbon, and receives oxygen from the air, and thus is prepared for 
its retui-n to the heart, and to be again sent through the system. 

The right lung is somewhat larger than the left, and both fill their re- 
spective cavities when inflated. They are entirely free from any attach- 
ment to the pleura — the membrane which lines the ribs — when in their 
natural state. When the animal has been bled to death, the lungs are of 
a light color ; but if the animal has died with all its blood in it, their color 
resembles that of the liver. This can, however, be readily distinguished 
from Jtepatization — the result of certain diseases — as will be hereafter 
shown. 

The Windpipe, Larynx, Pharynx, &c. — The bronchial tubes constant- 
ly uniting as they approach the anterior portion or root of each lung, final- 
ly form a single large tube, as they make their exit from each lobe, and 
these, uniting into one, foi-m the windpipe. This is a well known cartila- 
ginous tube which passes out of the chest between the first two ribs, and 
ascends on the front part of the neck. It unites with the larynx, which 
continues the air passage from the lungs to the mouth. The oesophagus 
leaves the chest close beside the windpipe, and ascends the neck on the 



236 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



left side of the latter. It communicates with the pharynx, which commu- | 
Gates with the mouth. The food on being swallowed enters the pharynx ' 
or food bag, which is directly above the larynx — so that the food traverses 
the entrance to the latter. It is deterred from entering the windpipe by ^ 
the ejjiglottis, a triangular lid or valve which piojects upward from the i 
floor of the passage, and which closes upon and covers the glottis, or en- 
trance into the windpipe, when any substance more dense than air comes ,« 
in contact with it in its downward passage. f 

The Thyroid and Parotid Glands. — The Thyroid glands are located !| 
on each side of the trachea. The parotid glands are situated immediately ,j 
below the ear, behind the angle of the lower jaw. There are certain J 
other glands situated beneath the lower jaw, not necessary here to be re- i 
ferred to. * 



THE HEAD AND ITS CONTENTS. 
Fig. 49. 
4 
?• 




BONES OF THE HEAD. 



1. The nasftl hone. 

2. The upper jaw bone. 

3. The intermaxillary bone, which supports the 

pad which supplies the place of upper front 
teeth. 
4. 4. The frontal sinus. 

5. Cavity or sinus of the horn, communicating 

with the frontal sinus. It is here shown by 
the removal of a section of the base of the 
horn. 

6. The parietal bone. 

7. The frontal bone. 

8. Vertical section of the brain. 



9. Vertical section of the cerebellum. 

a. The cineritious portion of the brain. 

b. The medullary portion. 

10. The ethmoid bone. 

11. The cribriform or perforated plate of the ethmoid 

bone. " It separates the nasal cavity from the 
brain ; it is thin almost as a wafer, and pierced 
by numerous holes, through which the olfacto- 
ry nerve penetrates, in order to spread itself 
over the inner part of the nose." 

12. The lower cell of the ethmoid bone. 

13. The superior turbinated bone. 

14. The inferior turbinated bone. 



17. The sphenoid bone. 

t 

The above cut, copied from Youatt, gives, with the subjoined explana- i 
tions, a sufficient description of most of the structures of the head. Some, 
however, demand a little more particular description. 

The Brain. — The brain of the sheep is smaller in proportion than that ! 
of Man, but is shaped so nearly like the latter, and so closely resembles \ 
it in its general structure and conformation, that it furnishes the medical j 
student with a good substitute for the brain of the human subject ! The 
brain is invested in a membrane called the ^^/a mater. The cranium or 
skull is lined by the dura mater, and between this and the former there is • 
a delicate membrane called the tunica arachnoides. 

.1 

The Nerves. — Ten pair of nerves arise from the brain, and thirty pair j 
fi-om the spinal cord. These supply the sense of seeing, hearing, tasting, 
smelling, feeling, &c. &c. ; and a portion of them, termed nerves of mo- *| 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



237 



tion, communicate that volition of the brain to the different parts of the 
system, which produces motion. A description of these various nerves, or 
even an enumeration of them, would be of no 'practical benefit in a mere 
popular veterinary treatise. 

The Teeth. — The sheep has 24 molar teeth, and eight incisors. The 
latter are confined to the lower jaw, being opposed to a firm, hard, elastic 
pad or cushion on the upper jaw. The incisors are ^ow^e-shaped — i, e., 
concave without and convex within — which enables the sheep to crop the 
herbage closer to the ground than our other domestic ruminant, the ox. 

The lamb is born without incisor teeth, or it has but two. In three or 
four weeks, it has eight small, shortish ones, as represented in fig. 50. — 



Fig. 50. 



Fiff. 51. 



Fig. 52. 




Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



Fi". 55. 



When not far from a year old — though sometimes not until fourteen, fif- 
teen, or even sixteen months old — the two central incisors are shed, and 
their place is supplied by two longer and broader teeth, as in fig. 51. The 
sheep is then termed, in this country, a yearling, or yearling ]>ast. Two 
of the " lamb teeth" continue to be annually shed and their places supplied 
with the permanent ones until the sheep becomes '■'■ fidl-mnuthedr Fig. 
52 presents the teeth of a two-year-old-past — fig. 53 of a three-year-old- 
past — fig. bb of a four-year-old-past. The four-year-old-past is, in reality, 
nearly or quite five years old, before it obtains its whole number of fvUu- 
groivn permanent teeth. The two-year-old and three-year-old also about 
reach their next year before their additional incisors are fully grown. — 
Hence, the English writers all speak of two broad teeth (meaning fully- 
grown ones) as indicating the age of two years ; four broad teeth, three 
years ; six broad teeth, four years ; and eight broad teeth, or full-mouthed, 
five years. I prefer the English arrangement, as more accurate, but the 
other is the common one in the Northern and Eastern States; and, as it 
is a matter of little practical consequence, it will here be adhered to. 

Fig. 54 gives an inside view of the incisors of a three-year-old-past — an 
outside view of which is given in fig. 53. The two remaining lamb teeth 
are here shown, which in the outside view are concealed by the last pair 
of pei'manent teeth. From their being thus concealed, the three is often 
mistaken for the four-year-old-past, by those who do not count the perma- 
nent teeth. 

At six years old, the incisors begin to diminish in breadth. At seven 
they have lost their fan-like shape, being equilateral, long, and narrow. — 
At eight, they are still narrower ; and this year or the next, reversing the 
flaring or divergent position in which they are shown in fig. 55, they begin 



238 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

to point in toward the two central ones. Their narrowness and inward' 
direction increases for a year or two more, when they bea^in to drop out. 
Sheep fed on turnips or other roots, lose their teeth earlier than those) 
which only receive grain, hay, &c. in winter. At twelve years old, the in-H 
cisors are usually gone with the exception of one or two loose ones. Andi 
here let me remark that when the incisors are reduced to one or two, they 
should always be twitched out with a pair of nippers. They are useless; 
for the purpose for which they were formed, and they prevent that contact' 
of the lower gum with the pad above, which is now the only substitute for* 
teeth in cropping grass. When all the incisors are gone, the gums of the? 
lower jaw rapidly harden, and I have known ewes to live for years, keeps 
in fair condition and rear lambs, without an incisor tooth in their heads ! ' 
The above remarks are more particularly applicable to the Merinot 
breed. The other breeds, so far as my acquaintance extends, lose theiri 
teeth, or become " broken-mouthed " somewhat earlier ; and they dwin- 
dle away and die soon after they begin to lose their teeth. : 



THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. ;' 

Thk Biflex Canal. — The lower extremities of the sheep, including the 
legs, feet, &c., require no anatomical description. I will simply call atten-( 
tion to the biflex or interdigital canal, the nature and diseases of which i 
have been the subjects of so many errors. It is a small orifice opening 
externally on the front of each pastern immediately above the cleft be--, 
tween the toes. It bifurcates within, a tube passing down on each side 
of the inner face of the pastern, winding round and ending in a c?d de sac. 

The use of this canal is a matter of doubt. Mr. Spooner thinks the hair 
always found in it is " excreted from the internal surface," and " from the 
smallness of the opening it cannot escape, or rather is detained for a use- 1 
ful puipose." He continues : 

" The use of this canal, thus stuffed with hair, is self-evident. We have mentioned the 
great motion possessed by this pastern joint, which is so great as to threaten to chafe the 
skin by the friction of one side against the other. It is to prevent or ward off" this friction 
that these biflex canals, or rather hair-stuffed cushions, are provided." 

In my judgment, this is a very far-fetched conclusion, and Mr. Youatt's 
is little more satisfactory. Diseases originating in this canal are some- 
times confounded with hoof-ail ; and the canal, or a portion of it, is often 
dissected, or rather tnangled out by ignorant charlatans in pursuit of an 
imaginary worm, which, they induce the credulous farmer to believe, ori- 
ginates the hoof-ail ! The hoof-ail proper has nothing to do with, nor do 
its characteristic lesions extend to this canal. 



FEBRILE DISEASES. 

Simple inflammatory, malignant inflammatory, and typhus fevers often 
devastate the flocks of Europe ; but they seem scarcely to be known in 
the United States, and are included in no American work on the diseases 
of sheep which has fallen under my eye. 

The same remark applies to phrenitis (inflammation of the brain), pleu- 
ritis (inflammation of the membrane which lines the thorax), gastritis (in- 
flammation of the stomach), enteretis (inflammation of the intestines), cys- 
titis (inflammation of the bladder), laryngitis (inflammation of the larynx), 
and several other inflammatory diseases. 

Ophthalmia. — Ophth-almia, or inflammation of the eye, is not uncommon 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 239 

in our country, but is little noticed, as in most cases it disappears in a few 
days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract. The cataract being- usu- 
ally confined to one eye does not appreciably affect the value of the ani- 
mal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. As a remedy for this 
disease, Mr, Grove recommended blowing pulverized red chalk into the 
inflamed eye ! Others squirt into it tobacco juice, from that ever ready 
reservoir of this nauseous fluid, their mouths! I apprehend that all such 
prescriptions are far worse than nothing. 

Conceiving it a matter of humanity to do sometMvg, I have in some in- 
stances drawn blood from under the eye, bathed the eye in tepid water, 
and occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined 
with tincture of opium. These applications diminish pain and accelerate 
the cure. 

Pneumonia. — Pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, is not a com- 
mon disease, in the Northern States, but undoubted cases of it sometimes 
occur, after sheep have been exposed to sudden cold — particularly when 
recently shorn. The adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs 
and pleura of slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this dis- 
ease — though in many instances it was so slight as to be mistaken, in the 
time of it, for a hard cold. The sheep laboring under pneumonia is dull, 
ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, drinks frequently and largely, and its 
bi'eathing is rapid and laborious. The eye is clouded — the nose discharges 
a tenacious, fetid matter — the teeth are gi'ound frequently, so that the 
sound is audible to some distance. The pulse is at first hard and rapid — 
sometimes intermittent ; but before death it becomes weak. During the 
hight of the fever, the flanks heave violently. There is a hard, painful 
cough during the first stages of the disease. This becomes weaker, and 
seems to be accompanied with more pain as death approaches. 

After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized, i. e. permanently 
condensed, and engorged with blood, so that their structure resembles 
that of the hepar, or liver — ^^and they have so far lost their integrity that 
they are torn asunder by the slightest force. 

It may be well in this place to remark that when sheep die from any 
cause with their Wood in them, the lungs have a dark hepatized appear- 
ance. But whether actually hepatized or not, can be readily decided by 
compressing the windpipe, so that air cannot escape threugh it, and then 
between such compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting 
orifice, insert a goose-quill or other tube, and continue to blow until the 
lungs are inflated so far as they can be. As they inflate, they will become 
lighter colored, and plainly manifest their cellular structure, jf any por- 
tions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their dark, liver-like consistency 
and color, they exhibit hepatization — the result of high inflammatory ac- 
tion — and a state utterly incompatible, in the living animal, with the dis- 
charge of the natural functions of the viscus. 

With the treatment of pneumonia, I have but little personal experience. 
In the first or inflammatory stages of the disease, bleeding and aperients 
are clearly called for. Mr. Spooner recommends " early and copious 
bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours . . . this followed by aperi- 
ent medicines, such as 2 oz. of Epsom salts, which may be repeated in 
smaller doses if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. . . . The following 
sedative may also be given with gruel twice a day : 

Nitrate of potash 1 drachm. 

Digitalis, powdered 1 ecmple. 

Tartarized antimony 1 do. 



240 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The few cases I have seen have been of a sub-acute character, and would) 
not bear treatment so decidedly and I thhik dangerously antiphlogistic. 
Mr. Youatt remarks : 

" Depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance — the eiiort continuance — 
of the febrile state ; but excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding ex- 
haustion, and then the bleeding and the purging would be murderous expedients, and geudao, 
ginger, and the spirit of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure." 

Bronchitis. — It would be difficult to suppose that where sheep are sub- 
ject to pneumonia they would not also be subject to bronchitis — which is 
an inflammation of the mucous membrane which lines the bronchial tubes 
— the air-passes of the lungs. I have seen no cases, however, which 1 
have been able to identify as bronchitis, and have examined no subjects, 
after death, which exhibited its characteristic lesions. Its symptoms are 
those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever and a tenderness 
of the throat and belly when pressed upon. 

Treatment. — Administer salt in doses from li to 2 oz., with 6 or 8 oz. 
of lime-water, given in some other part of the day. This is Mr. Youatt's 
prescription. 

Catarrh. — Catan'h is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which 
lines the nasal passages — and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pha- 
rynx. In the first instance — where the lining of the nasal passages is 
alone and not very violently affected — it is merely accompanied by an in- 
creased discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In 
this form it is usually termed snvffies, and high-bred English mutton sheep, 
in this counti-y, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after every sudden 
change of weather. When the inflammation extends to the mucous lining 
of the larynx and pharynx, some degree of fever usually supervenes, ac- 
companied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At this point the Eng- 
lish veterinarians usually recommend bleeding and purging. Catarrh rarely 
attacks the American fine-wooled sheep with sufficient violence in summer, 
to require the exhibition of remedies. I early found that depletion, in 
catarrh, in our severe pointer months, rapidly produced that fatal prostra- 
tion, from which it is next to impossible to recover the sheep — entirely im- 
possible, without bestowing an amount of time and care on it, costing far 
more than the price of any ordinary sheep. 

The best course is X.o prevent the disease, by judicious precautions. With 
that amount of attention which every prudent flock-master should bestow 
on his sheep, the hardy American Merino is little subject to it. Good, 
comfortable, but well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep 
in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, is usually a 
sufficient safeguard ; and after some years of experience, during which I 
have tried a variety of experiments on this disease, I resort to no other 
remedies — in other words, I do nothing for those occasional cases of ordina- 
ry catarrh which arise in my flock, and they never prove fatal. 

Malignant Epizootic Catarrh. — Essentially differing from the pre- 
ceding in type and virulence is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking, 
an epizootic, malady, which as often as once in eight or ten years sweeps 
over extended sections of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than 
all the other diseases put together. It usually makes its appearance in win- 
ters characterized by rapid and violent changes of temperature. The 
Northern farmers speak of these as the " bad winters " for sheep — fre- 
quently without assigning any name to the malady. Others term the lat- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 241 

ter " The Distemper," and others again call it the " Crrub in the Head" at- 
tributing the evil exclusively to the presence of these parasites. The 
latter, as I shall hereafter show, is an entirely erroneous hypothesis. 

The winter of 1846-7 was one of these " bad winters," and the de- 
struction of sheep in New-York, and some adjoining States, was very ex- 
tensive. Some flock-masters lost half, others three-quarters, and a few 
seven-eighths of their flocks. One individual within a few miles of me lost 
five hundred out of eight hundred — another nine hundred out of one 
thousand ! But these severe losses fell mainly on the holders of the deli- 
cate Saxon sheep, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the best 
accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. 

I lost about fifty sheep during this winter, and never having seen any de- 
scription of the pathology of this disease, its diagnosis, its lesions — or, in 
short, any attempt to ascertain its specific character or proper classifica- 
tion in our ovine nosology — I shall attempt to supply some of these omis- 
sions. Not dreaming then of a publication of this kind, my notes were 
only taken for private reference, and were not as full as they should be for 
a veterinary treatise. I might supply some of these omissions accurately 
from recollection, but do not consider it proper thus to endanger the accu- 
racy of records, which as far as they go, I tliink may no20 be implicitly re- 
lied on. My post-mortem examinations were made at intervals snatched 
from other pressing engagements. This fact, and certain preconceived 
views — which I subsequently found erroneous — prevented me from making 
those examinations, and more particularly the records of them, as minute 
and extended as could be wished. I then sought only to convince myself 
of the true nature and character of the disease. 

In detailing the results of my experience in the premises, I conceive it a 
duty to frankly state the whole facts. The records oi mismanagetntnt and 
error, are often as useful, nay, more so, than those of successful manage- 
ment, and it is a pitiful pride which prevents any man, who pretends to 
communicate information to the public, from giving that public the bene- 
fit of his examples which are to be avoided,, as well as those which are to 
\)Qfollo%oed. 

Up to Febi'uary, my sheep remained apparently perfectly sound, and 
they were in good flesh. Each flock had excellent shelters, were fed re- 
gularly, etc., and although sheep were beginning to perish about the coun- 
try, my uniform previous impunity in these " bad winters " led me to en- 
tertain no apprehensions of the prevailing epizootic. About the first of 
February, my sheep went into the charge of a new man, hired upon the 
highest recommendations. A few days alter, 1 was called away from home 
for a week. The weather during my absence was, a part of the time, very 
severe. The sheep-house occupied by one flock containing one hundred 
sheep, was, with the exception of two doors, as close a room as can be 
made by nailing on the wall-boards vertically and without lapping, as is 
common on our Northern barns.* One of the doors was always left open, 
to permit the free ingress and egress of the sheep, and for necessary ventila- 
tion. A half dozen ewes which had been untimely impregnated by a 
neighbor's ram, were on the point of lambing, and it being safer to confine 
the ewes in a warm room over night, the shepherd, instead of removing 
them to such a room, confined the whole flock in the sheep-house every 
night, and rendered it warm by closing both doors ! After two or three 
hours, the air must have become excessively impure. On entering the 
sheep-house, on my return, I was at once struck with the fetid, highly of- 
fensive smell. A change, too, slight but ominous, had taken place in the 

• Boards in these cases shrink so as to leave slight cracks between them. 

2H 



242 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



appearance of a part of the flock. They showed no signs of violent colds, I 
heard no coughing, sneezing, or labored respiration — and the only indica- 
tion of catarrh which I noticed, was a nasal discharge, by a few sheep. 
But those having this nasal discharge, and some others, looked dull and 
drooping ; their eyes ran a little — were partially closed, the caruncle and 
lids looked pale — tlieir movements were languid — and the shepherd com- 
plained that they did not eat quite so well as the others. The pulse was 
neai'ly natural — though I thought a trifle too languid. 

Not knowing what the disease was — and fully believing that depletion 
by bleeding or physic was not called for, let the disease be what it would. 
I contented myself with thoroughly purifying the sheep house — seeing that 
the feeding, etc.,* was managed with the greatest regularity — and closely 
watching the farther symptoms of disease in the flock. In about a week, 
the above described symptoms were evidently aggravated, and there had 
been a rapid em*iciation, accompanied with debility, in the sheep first at- 
tacked. The countenance was exceeding dull and drooping — the eye 
kept more than half closed — the caruncle, lids, &c. almost bloodless — a 
gummy yellow seci'etion below the eye — thick glutinous mucus adhering 
in and about the nostrils — appetite feeble — pulse languid — and the muscu- 
lar energy greatly prostrated. Nothing unusual was yet noticed about 
their stools or urine. 

I now had all the diseased sheep removed from the flock, and placed in 
rooms the temperature of which could be easily regulated. 

I commenced giving slight tonics and stimulants, such as gentian, gin- 
ger, etc., but apparently with no material efl'ect. They rapidly grew weak- 
er, stumbled and fell as they walked, and soon became unable to rise. The 
appetite grew feebler — the mucus at the nose, in some instances, tinged 
with dai-k grumous blood — the respiration oppressed, and they died with- 
in a day or two after they became unable to rise. 

I proceeded to make some post-mortem examinations, which I shall 
here detail, although, as I have before remarked, they are extremely im- 
perfect. I was at hrst inclined to suspect that the primary disease was one 
of some of the abdominal or thoracic viscera, and this impression was con- 
firmed by the abnormal condition of these viscera in the first subjects exam- 
ined. I therefore improperly confined my attention to these, and some of 
the external tissues, ivithout any examination of the interior organs of the 
head and neck. I shall give my notes verbatim as they were taken down 
at the time, whether the appearances detailed have, as I now believe, any 
connection with the fatal disease or not. 

Case 1st. Old sheep. Much emaciated — mouth and lips covered with 
yellow froth — yellow waxy matter under eyes — adhesive mucus in and 
about nostrils. On opening, external tissues appear healthy — two hyda- 
tids on omentum of the size of a walnut — gall-bladder enlarged and enor- 
mously distended with pale, and apparently not properly eliminated bile 
— gall-bladder slightly adhering to omentum — mesenteric glands enlarged 
— other abdominal viscera believed to be normal — faeces in rectum thought 
to indicate a constipated habit — stomachs rather empty. Thoracic viscera 
healthy. 

Case 2d. Two years old. External appearances as in Case Ist, with 
the exception of the yellow froth about the mouth. External tissues 
healthy. Gall-bladder very small and nearly empty — bile pale and un- 
eliminated — mesenteric glands enlarged — schirrous tumor at the junction 



* They had been fed with bright hny three times a day, nnd Uirnips. As those affected hs above did not 
eat their turnips well, I commenced leedaig souie oats, in addition to the turnips. 1 believed that a gener- 
ous fted was called for, and I gave it. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 243 

of the ccBcum and. colon of the size of a butternut. Superior lobe of left 
lung adherent to pleura costalis — three lobes of right luntf ditto, with slight 
traces of recere^ inflammation. Hydro-pericarditis — the pericardium slight- 
ly inflamed and containing something more than a gill of serum. 

Case 3d. Old, and in lamb. External appearances and tissues as in 
Case 2d. Omentum dark-yellowish, or yellowish-brown by deposition of 
lymph, the result of inflammatory action — gall-bladder precisely as in Case 
2d — tabes mesentrica or enlai'gement of the mesenteric glands, as in the 
preceding cases. Middle lobe of right lung slightly hepatized, and adher- 
ent to pleura costalis — hydro-pericarditis, (a gill of serum in pericar- 
dium.) 

Case 4th. Yearling ram. External appearances and tissues as in pre- 
ceding cases. Two small hydatids on omentum — gall-bladder as in two 
preceding cases — mesenteric glands as in preceding cases. Traces of diar- 
rhea. Thoracic viscera healthy. 

Case 5th. Lamb. External appearance as in preceding cases — omen- 
tum as in Case 3d, and small hydatid on it — gall-bladder as in three pre- 
ceding cases — ditto of mesenteric glands. Thoracic viscera healthy. 

Case 6th. Four-year-old ram, killed for examination, in the first stage 
of the disease. Yet strong, appetite good, in fair condition, and exhibited 
no particular external indications of disease except running at the eyes, a 
slight gummy deposition below them — and some mucus about the nostrils. 
Gall-bladder but little better filled than in preceding cases — mesenteric 
glands same as in preceding cases. Thoracic viscera healthy. 

Remarks on Preceding Cases. — I had started on the supposition that 
the fatal disease would be found one of the lungs, consequent on ca- 
tarrh. I thought it mig'it prove a species of pneumonia, though some of 
the characteristic symptoms of that disease seemed to be wanting ; but I 
believed it would rather prove to be phthisis pulmonalis, or pulmonary 
consumption. To the last disease, when it assumes the form of what is 
popularly called " quick consumption," it seemed to me to bear several 
striking analogies. But the post-mortem examinations above detailed, en- 
tirely overthrow these suppositions. Except in Case 2d, there were no 
manifestations o? recent inflammation of the lungs. The adhesions in Case 
3d, were evidently referable to a past date. In the other four cases, the 
lungs were in a healthy condition — exhibiting not a trace of hepatization, 
tubercles, ulcers, or other abnormal action ! In Case 6th, where the dis- 
ease was in its first observable and therefore inflammatory stage, none of 
the thoracic viscera presented a particle of inflammation ! 

Then what was the disease 1 It was evidently the same in the several 
cases, yet the lesions disclosed by post-mortem examination were very va- 
rious. Hence, I was led to conclude that these lesions were the results 
of sympio?natic disease, and that i\\e primary one was not yet discovered. 

The malady continued to spread. New cases occurred daily — it began 
to exhibit itself in my other flocks. It had manifestly put on the charac- 
ter of an epizootic — or, if I may be permitted to coin a word, an en-zo- 
otic. I now gave orders to have every sheep removed from the several flocks, 
as soon as it should be attacked with disease. I also resolved on more ex- 
tended post-mortem examinations. The following are the notes taken in 
the immediately succeeding cases. 

Case 7th. Yearling. External appearance as in the preceding cases — 
external tissues normal — mesenteric glands slightly enlarged — gall-blad- 
der of natural size, with good bile, and with the natural discolorations 
about it. Thoracic viscei'a healthy, with exception of pericardium, which 
exhibited traces of recent inflammation and contained a gill of sei'um 



244 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The thorax also contained considerable fluid, which escaped without ad- 
measurement. 

I now examined the bronchial tubes, the lower portions of the windpipe, 
oesophagus, &c., and found them all in an apparently healthy condition. 
Before tracing these passages to the throat, I removed the upper portion 
of the skull and carefully examined the brain and its investing mem- 
bz-anes. All seemed in a perfectly normal state. I then made a longitu- 
dinal section down through the middle part of the whole head, as is shown 
in fig. 49, and the seat and, character of the fatal malady stood at once 
revealed ! 

The mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cvvity, highly congested 
and thickened throughout its whole extent, betrayed the most intense in- 
flammation. At the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribri- 
form plate, (in the ethmoidal cells,) slight ulcers were forming on the mem- 
braneous lining ! The inflammation also extended to the mucous mem- 
brane of the pharynx, and say three inches of the ujjper portion of the oeso- 
phagus. Here it rather abruptly terminated. 

Case 8th. Old, in lamb. External appearances as in preceding cases — 
abdominal parietes healthy — all the viscera apparently healthy. The in- 
flammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity, pharynx, and 
upper poi'tion of oesophagus, as in Case 7th, only not quite so acute — no 
ulcers on the membrane. 

Cases 5th and 6th revicived. The heads of these two subjects having 
been accidentally preserved, I examined them, and found the inflammatory 
action of the mucous membrane same as in cases 7th and 8th. Nor have I 
a particle of doubt that the same would have been found the case in all 
the preceding subjects, had they been examined. 

Nosologji and Treatment. — I had little difficulty in coming to the conclu- 
sion that the primary and main disease was a species of catarrh. It evidently, 
however, differed from ordinary catarrh in its diagnosis, and in the extent 
of the lesions accompanying both the primary and pymptomatic dis- 
eases. 

In no case, even in the first attack, did I notice anything — the fever — 
the accelerated pulse — the redness about the eyes and nostrils — the cough- 
ing, etc., accompanying an ordinary severe attack of catarrh. And it was 
for this reason that I was misled as to the seat of the malady. From the 
very outset, according to my observations, the type of the disease was 
typhoid — sinking — rapidly tending to fatal prostration. 

How to reduce the local inflammation of the membrane lining the nasal 
cavities, I was at a loss to determine. I was satisfied that thei-e was too 
much debility to admit of an antiphlogistic course of treatment. Still, to 
make myself sure, I bled in three or four cases, and, as I anticipated, it 
evidently accelerated the fatal catastrophe. Blistering could not be brought 
near to the seat of the inflammation, excepting on the nose, and independ- 
ent of the extreme difficulty of treating a blister on a spot so constantly 
exposed to dirt, the rubbing of hay, etc., in winter feeding, I believed it 
could have little effect, on an account of the thick nasal bone intervening 
between it and any jmrtion of the inflamed membrane. And, moreover, 
the greater portion of the inflamed membrane rested on bones detached, 
except at one extremity, from all connection with the nasal bone. I blew 
Scotch snuff" (through paper tubes) up the nostrils of some of the sheep, 
for two objects — l,to remove, by sneezing, the mucus, which mechanical- 
ly, and evidently injuriously, obstructed respiration ; and 2, to produce a 
new action, by which an increased mucous secretion would be excited, 
and thus the congested membrane relieved. But, farther than this, I re- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 245 



Borted to no local or other treatment designed specifically to reach the local 
inflammation. 

The next step was to fix on the constitutional treatment. The liver was 
evidently in a torpid state. There was a functional derangement in the 
mesenteric and probably other glands, and a want of activity in the general 
secretory system. What medicine would stimulate the liver, cause it to 
secrete the proper quantity as well as quality of bile, change the morbid 
action of the glands and secretory system, and restore activity and health 
to the vital functions generally ? In my judgment, nothing promised so 
well as mercury ; and by its well known effect on the entire secretory sys- 
tem, it would powerfully tend to relieve the congested membranes of the 
head. In this opinion I was joined by a learned and experienced physi- 
cian, who, both as a matter of taste and humanity, has given no little at- 
tention to veterinary science and practice. The proto-chloride of mercury 
(calomel) was supposed to possess too much specific gravity to reach the 
fourth stomach, with any certainty, administered in a liquid ; and if ad- 
ministered as a ball or pill, it would be almost sure not to reach that stom- 
ach.* The dissolved bi-chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) was 
therefore hit upo^. One grain was dissolved in two ounces of water, and 
one-half ounce of the water (or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate) 
was exhibited in a day, in two doses. 

As constipation existed in most of the cases, it was thought that the 
bowels required to be stimulated into action, and slightly evacuated with 
a mild laxative. Having noticed in similar cases of debility and torpor of 
the intestinal canal, that purgation is often followed by a serous diarrhea, 
difficult to correct, and leading to rapid prostration, and there being no in- 
testinal irritation to suffer exacerbation, I thought that rhubarb — from its 
well known tendency to give tone to the bowels, and its secondary effect 
as a mild astringent — was particularly indicated. It was given in a decoc- 
tion — the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose — accompanied with 
the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian, in 
infusion. 

To a portion of the sheep I administered the rhubarb and its adjuvants 
alone ; to others I gave the bi-chloride of mercury in addition to the pi'ece- 
ding. I employed these courses of treatment in a number of cases, the 
records of all which have been accidentally destroyed with the exception 
of the following three. 

Case 9th. Ram, three years old. Has been drooping and weak, with 
feeble appetite, for some time — has been separated from fiock. Has eaten 
his oats irregularly for several days, and refused turnips, bran, etc., alto- 
gether — much emaciated — eyes partly closed, with a yellowish deposit 
below them — caruncle and lids bloodless — nostrils impeded with adhesive 
yellowish mucus. 

March 17th. Weaker than before — would not rise to feed — not seen to 
eat or ruminate — gait, when helped up, weak and staggering ; eyes near- 
ly closed — stooled dry, hard faeces — urine dark and reddish. Exhibited 
rhubarb with gineer and gentian in gruel — blew snuff" into nostrils. March 
18th, morning — Weaker; refused to eat anything. Exhibited rhubarb, 
ginger and gentian in gruel. Noon — Urine seemingly bloody : breathing 
labored : exhibited cori'osive sublimate in gruel. Night — Dying. March 
19th, morning — Dead. 

Post-mortem appeai'ances. Inner edges of both lobes of liver softened 
about two inches from horizontal fissure : hypropericarditis and hydro- 



* For reasons which will be hereafter given under the head of " The Proper Way of Administering 
Medicines." 



246 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



thorax — nearly half pint of serum in latter. Other viscera apparently 
normal. Lining of superior portion of cesophagus and nasal cavity as in 
Case 8th. 

Case 10th. Three-year-old ewe. • Drooping for several days : sleepy — 
emaciated and weak: cannot rise without help : appearances about nos- 
trils and eyes as in Case 9th : appetite considerable — rumination not ob- 
served. March 17th. Exhibited ginger and gentian in gruel : blew 
snuff" in nostrils. Latter produced sneezing and a discharge of mucus. 
ISth : Morning. Weaker and would not eat. Noon. A little live- 
lier : ate hay and grain ; exhibited ginger and gentian. Night. Evac- 
uations thin: urine of a natural color. 19th, Morning: same. Noon. 
Exhibited same remedies as before. The same course was pursued for 
three days : the sheep appearing rather to gain, when one morning it was 
found dead. No post-mortem examination made. 

Case 11th. Old ewe. Symptoms precisely as in Case lOth, except an 
occasional giinding of the teeth. March 17th. Treated exactly as in Case 
9th. Lived three days and appeared to rally a little, then brought forth a 
lamb and died. Post-mortem examination. Abdominal parietes healthy 
— gall-bladder filled with pale bile: liver normal in size but softened 
throughout its entire extent, and pale : portions of it paler and more disor- 
ganized than others : no parasites in its ducts. Thoracic viscera normal. 
Sub-acute inflammation of the mucous lining of the nasal cavity, and of the 
superior portion of the oesophagus. Slight ulcer in the ethmoidal cells. 

I made various other post-mortem examinations. Some of the viscera 
in every case were in a more or less abnormal state ; but there was the 
same variety in the locality of the diseased action as in the preceding 
cases. But so far as the seat and character of the catarrhal affection was 
concerned, it was imiform in every case. The only difference was in in- 
tensity, as exhibited by the extent of the lesions. 

Not a single sheep recovered after the emaciation and debility had pro- 
ceeded to any great extent ! One such only lingered along until shearing. 
Its wool gradually dropped off": it seemed to rally a little once or twice, 
and then relapse ; and it perished one night in a rain-storm. In the gen- 
erality of instances the time from the first observed symptoms until death, 
varied from ten to fifteen days. A few died in a shorter time. 

In the three cases last detailed, the disease had evidently proceeded too 
far to be arrested by arty treatment. I much regret the loss of the records 
of the other cases, which would throw farther light on the subject. I 
tlwus^ht that the treatment produced favorable effects in some instances — 
particularly when resorted to at the commencement of the disease. ' At all 
events, some of the sheep recovered under the treatment — particularly un- 
der that including the exhibition of the bi-chloride of mercury — and very 
few, if anv, recovered without any treatment. Candor compels me to say, 
however, that the results of the treatment were far from being highly sat- 
isfactory — that the cases of recovery were much fewer than the deaths. I 
have merely stated what I believe to be the facts in the premises ; I do not 
feel prepared to make any recommendations. 

The epizootic gradually abated toward spring, and my flock have since 
been in perfect health. 

Near spring, many farmers found what seemed to them an unusual num- 
ber of grubs in the head (frontal sinuses) of the sheep which died of the 
prevailing epizootic, and therefore they attributed the disease to this cause, 
and this seems to be the prevailing popular opinion. In some of the latest 
cases in ray flock, I discovered more or less grubs ; and, in two or three 
instances, an unusual number. In other cases where the external symp- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 247 

toms and the post-mortem appearances were almost identical, no gi-ubs 
were to be seen. For this reason, and others which I shall assign when 
treating of grub in the head, I conclude that the popular opinion is erro- 
neous. 

The Rot. — The existence and prevalence of the Rot in the United 
States have been sufficiently alluded to in Letter XIV. Notwithstanding 
its comparative rareness here, so far as is known, at present, I think it 
expedient to give a full description of it. It may be more prevalent 
hereafter, or it may be found peculiar to localities where sheep have not 
yet been introduced. And whether so or not, as its existence will often 
be feared and suspected in diseased flocks, it is proper that the flock- 
master always have it in his power to clearly identify this terrible des- 
troyer. 

The diagnosis of the disease is thus given by Mr. Spooner.* 

" The first symptoms attending this disease are by no means strongly marked ; there is 
no loss of condition, but rather apparently the contrary ; indeed, sheep intended lor the 
butcher have been purposely cothed or rotted in order to increase their fattening properties 
for a few weeks, a practice which was adopted by the celebrated Bakewell. A want of 
liveliness and paleness of the membranes generally may be considered as the first symptoms 
of the disease, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the 
eye. Dr. Hairison observes, ' when in wann, sultry or rainy weather, sheep that are grazing 
on low and moist lauds feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is fear that they 
have contracted the rot.' This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few weeks afterward, 
the sheep begin to shrink and become flaccid about the loins. By pressure about the hips at 
this time a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, the countenance looks pale, and 
upon pai-thig the fleece the skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, 
and the wool is easily separated fi-om the pelt; and as the disoi-der advances the skin be- 
comes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms succeed increased dullness, 
loss of condition, greater paleness of the mucous membranes, the eyelids becoming almost 
white and afterward yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a 
watery fluid appears under the skin, which becomes loose and flabby, the wool coming off 
readily. The symptoms of dropsy often extend over the body, and sometimes the sheep 
becomes chockered, as it is termed — a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, fiom tha 
appearances of the fluid it contains, is in some places called the watery poke. The duration 
of the disease is uncertain ; the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected, but 
more fi-equently it extends to from three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and 
pinmg away, particulai4y if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes." 

Mr. Youatt thus describes the post-mortem appearances : t 

" When a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole cellular tissue is found to be 
infiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft 
and flabby : they have the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid, 
and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid. 
The belly is frequently filled with water or purulent matter ; the peritoneum is everywhere 
thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural gi'owth. The heart 
is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The pruicipal alterations 
of structure are in the liver. It is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ; 
and on being boiled it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is ofteu 
curiously spotted. In some cases it is speckled like the back of a toad. Nevertheless, some 
parts of it are hard and schirrous ; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with 
flukes. Here is the decided seat of disease, and it is here that the nature of the malady is 
to be learned. It is inflammation of the liver. . . . The liver attracts the principal atten- 
tion of the examiner : it displays the evident effects of acute and destructive inflammation ; 
and still more plainly the ravages of the parasite with which its ducts are crowded. Here 
is plainly the original seat of the disease — the center whence a destructive influence spreads 
on every side. . . . The Fluke — the Fasciol.a of Linnajus — the Distoma hepaticum of 
Rhodolphi — the Planaria of Goese — is found in the biliary ducts of the sheep, the goat, the 
deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog, the dog, the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and various 
other animals, and even in the human being. It is from three quarters of an inch to an inch 
and a quarter in length, and from one-third to half an inch iu greatest breadth. 



* Spnoner, p. ^1, et supra. 
t Youatt, p. 447, eX aupra. 



248 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



Figs. 56 and 58 represent this parasite of its usual size and appearance, and its resem- 
blance to a minute sole, divested of its fins, is very striking. The head is of a pointed 
form, round above and flat beneath ; and the mouth opens laterally instead of vertically. 



Fie. 56. 



Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 




Fig. 59. 




THE FLUKE. 

There are no barbs or tentaculas, as described by some author.'!. The eyes are placed on the 
most prominent part of the head, and are very singularly constructed (fig. 57). They have 
the bony ring of the bird. . . . The anastf)moses of the blood-vessels which ramify over 
the head are {)lainly seen through a toleraljle microscope. The circulating and digestive 
organs are also evident, and are seated almost immediately below the head. The situation 
of the heart is seen in fig. 56, and llie two main vessels evidently springing from it, and 
extending through almost the whole length of the fluke. Smaller blood-vessels, if so they 
may be called, ramify from them on either side. The convolutions of the bowels appear in 
fig. 59, and the vent, both for the faeces and the ova, and probably for the connection be- 
tween the sexes, is on the under part, and almost close to the neck 

In the belly, if so it may be called, are almost invariably a very great number of oval 
particles, hundreds of which, taken together, are not equal in bulk to a grain of sand. They 
are of a pale red color, and are supposed to be the spawn or eggs of the parasite 

There can be no doubt that the eggs aie frequently received in the food. Having been 
discharged with the dung, they remain on the grass or damp spot on which they may fall, 
retaining their vital principle for an indefinite period of time. . . . They find not always, or 
they find wot at all, a proper nidus in the places in which they are deposited ; but taken up 
with the food, escaping the perils of rumination, and threading every vessel and duct until 
they arrive at the biliary canal, they burst from their shells, and grow, and probably multi- 
ply 

Leeuweuhoek says that he has taken 870 flukes out of one liver, exclusive of those 
that were cut to pieces or destroyed in o[)ening the various ducts. In other cases, and 
•where the sheep have died of the rot, there were not found more than ten or twelve. . . . 

Then, is the flake worm the cause or the effect of rot ? To a certain degree both. They 
aggravate the disease ; they perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization, which 

must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal Notwithstanding all this, 

however, if the fluke follow the analogy of other eutoza and parasites, it is the effect and 
not the cause of rot 

The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or state of the pasture. It is con- 
fined to wet seasons, or to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons. It has 
reference to the evaporation of water, and to the presence and decomposition of moist vege- 
table matter. It is rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in dry seasons ; 
it is rarely wanting on boggy or poachy ground, except when that ground is dried by the 
heat of the summer's sun, or completely covered by the winter's rain. On the same farm 
there are certain fields on which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There aie others 
that seldom or never give the rot. The soil of the first is found to be of a pervious nature, 
oil which wet cannot long remain — the second takes a long time to dry, or is rarely or 
never so 

Some seasons are far more favorable to the development of the rot than others, and there 
is no maimer of doubt as to the character of those seasons. After a rainy summer or a 
moist autumn, or daring a wet winter, the rot destroys like a pestilence. A return and a 
coutJnuauce of dry weather materially arrests its murderous progress. Most of the sheep 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 249 

that had been already hifected die ; but the number of those that are lost soon begins to be 
I materially diminished. It is, therefore sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is 
I caused by, tlie existence of moisture. A rahiy season and a tenacious soil are frniiful or 
1 inevitable sources of it The mischief is efi'ected with almost incredible rapidity." 

Mr. Youatt here gives various instances to prove that rot is engendered 
in a fev\^ hours and even minutes, * He farther says : 

" It is an old observation that all pasture that is suspected to be unsound, the sheep should 
be folded early in the evening, before the first dews begin to fall, and should not be released 
from the fold until the dew is partly evaporated 

Then the mode of prevention — that with which the farmer will have most to do, for the 
Bheep having become once decidedly rotten, neither medicine nor management will have 
much power in arresting the evil — consists in altering the character of as much of the dan- 
gerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from those jiastures which defy all his 

attempts to improve them If all unnecessary moisture is removed from the soil, or 

if the access of air is cut off by the flooding of the pasture, no poisonous gas has existence, 
and the sheep continue sound 

The account of the treatment of rot mast, to a considerable extent, be very uusatis- 
fectory. " 

Mr. Youatt proceeds to recommend the sale of sheep to the hutchet 
when they are found to be rotted ! Rot hastens for a short period the 
accumulation of fat. Bakewell — a man whose name is associated with 
the exhibition of prodigious abiUties in the improvement of stock, but, in 
my mind, tarnished also by an equal exhibition of selfishness and absolute 
meanness — displayed a characteristic sagacity in purposi'li/ rotting his 
sheep to avail himself of the above circumstance ! t It is with pain [ 
make the following quotation from Yotiatt — the only thing of such a char- 
acter I remember to have noticed in his voluminous works : 

" It is one of the characters of the rot to hasten, and that to a strange degree, the accu- 
mulation of flesh and fat. Let not the farmer, however, push this experiment too far. Let 
him carefully overlook every sheep daily, and dispose of those which cease to make pro- 
gress, or which seem beginning to retrograde. It has already been stated that the meat of 
the rotted sheep, in the early stage of the disease, is not like that of the sound one ; it is 
pale and not so firm; but it is not unwholesome (!) and it is coveted by certain epicures, 
who, perhaps, are not altogether aware of the real state of the animal (! ! ) All this is 
matter of calculation, and must be left to the owner of the sheep ; except that, if the breed, 
is not of very considerable value, and the disease has not proceeded to emaciation or other 
fearful symptoms, the first loss will probably be the least ; and if the owner can get any- 
thing like a tolerable price for them, the sooner they are sent to the butcher, or consumed 
at home, the better. Supposing, however, that their appearance is beginning to tell tales 
about them, and they are too far gone to be disposed of in the market or consumed at home, 
are they to be abandoned to their fate ? No : Ikr from it. " 

Conceding to Mr. Youatt the whole benefit of that saving clause about 
" consumption at home," the above sentence is one which I could well 
wish stricken from his valuable work. The sale of the meat of diseased 
animals, for human consumption, is abhorrent to decency and propriety, 
and there is not a respectable American family which would not revolt at 
the idea of either selling or consuming such meat. 

Of the treatment of rot, Mr. Youatt continues : 

" If it is suited to tVie convenience of the farmer, and such ground were at all within his 
reach, the sheep should be sent to a salt-marsh in preference to the best pasture on the best 
farm. There it will feed on the salt incrusted on the herbage, and jjervading the pores of 
every blade of grass. A healthy salt-marsh permits not the sheep to become rotten which 
graze upon it ; and if the disease is not considerably advanced, it cures those which are sent 
upon it with the rot. . . . Are there any indications of fever — heated mon'h, heaving 
flanks, or failing appetite ? Is the general inflammation beginning lo have a determination 
to that part on wliich the disease usually expends its chielest virulence ? Is there yellow- 



t 



* Yountt, p. 453. 

t So say both Spooner and Youatt. ^ , 



250 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

iiess of the lips and of the mouth, of the eyes, and of the skin ? At the same time, are 
there no indications of weakness and decay ? Nothing to show that the constitution is 
iatally nndennined ? Bleed — abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight, ■ 
ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of an uiHammatory chai-acter at its 
commencement which is not benefited by early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic 
succeed — two or three ounces of Epsom salts, administered in the cautious maimer so fre- 
quently recommended ; and to these means let a change of diet be immediately added — 
good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff, in the straw-yard. 

The physic having operated, or an additional dose, perchance, having been administered • 
in order to quicken the action of the first, the farmer will look out for farther means and ' 

appliances Two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, but mixed with ' 

half the quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its iiijunous effects 
on the ruminant. To this should be added — a simple and cheap medicine, but that which - 

is the sheet-anchor of the practitioner here — conmion salt In the first place, it is a 

purgative inferior to few, when given in a full dose ; and it is a tonic as well as a purgative. 
.... A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement ' 
of rot. The doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When 1 
the inflammatory stiige is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there I 
are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; from one to two drachms of each, finely ,' 

powdered, may be added to each dose of the salt The sheep having a little recov- I 

ered from the disease, should still c<jutiiiue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and 
should always have salt within their reach The rot is not infectious." .1 

Diarrhea. — This disease is often more properly a nervous than a febriU ,\ 
one — in the former case, a morbid increase of the peristaltic motion of the 

bowels — in the latter, an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller ;' 

intestines. But for the purpose of viewing it in connection with dysen- i| 

tery, to which it is sometimes closely allied, and into which it often run8 | 

— and which is clearly a febrile disease — it will be described here. * 

Common diarrhea, purging, or scours, manifests itself simply by the i 

copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is brought on by a 1 

sudden change from dry feed to green, or by the introduction of im- :■ 

proper substances into the stomach. It is important to clearly distinguish j! 

this disease from dysentery. In diarrhea there is no apparent general | 

fever ; the appetite remains good ; the stools are thin and watery, but ' 

unaccompanied with slime (mucus) and blood ; the odor of the fasces is \ 

far less offensive than in dysentery ; the general condition of the animal is | 

but little changed. ] 

Treatment. — Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual re- 
turn to it, oftentimes suffice. I have rarely administered anything to grown , 
sheep, and never have lost one from this disease. To lambs, especially if 
attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the purging is severe, 
and especially if any mucus is observed with the faeces, the feculent mat- 
ter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic — as half a 
drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed-oil, or half an ounce of Epsom i 
salts to a lamb. This should always be followed by an astringent, and in 
nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. I gener- '\ 
ally administer, say, \ oz. of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, \ 
once a day for two or three days, at the end of which, and fiequently after j 
the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated or entirely ceased. | 

The following is the formula of the English " sheep's cordial " usually \ 
prescribed in cases of diarrhea by the English veterinarians, and there can i 
be no doubt it is a safe and excellent remedy — better probably than sim- :| 
pie chalk and milk, in severe cases : Take of prepared chalk one ounce, 
powdered catechu half an ounce, powdered ginger two drachms, and pow- 
dered opium half a drachm ; mix them with half a pint of peppermint wa- . 
ter — give two or three table-spoonsfull morning and night to a grown . 
sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 251 

Dysentery. — Dysentery is caused by an inflammation of the mucous oi 
mner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their 
lecretions, and a morbid alteration in the character of those secretions. It 
'8 frequently consequent on that form of diarrhea which is caused by an 
Inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflam- 
[nation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in viru- 
ence, and it becomes dysentery — a disease fi-equently dangerous and ob- 
stinate in its character, but fortunately not common among sheep in this 
part of the United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrhea in 
several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever ; the appe- 
tite is capricious, ordinarily very feeble ; the stools are as thin or even thin- 
tier than in diarrhea, but much more adhesive in consequence of the pres- 
ence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the intestines ad- 
Ivances, the fa?ces are tinged with blood ; their odor is intolerably offensive ; 
land the animal rapidly wastes away. The course of the disease extends 
from a few days to several weeks. 

Treatment. — I have seen but a few well-defined cases of dysentery, 
land in the half-dozen instances which have occurred in my own flock, 
J have usually administered a couple of purges of linseed-oil, followed by 
jchalk and milk as in diarrhea (only doubling the dose of chalk), and a few 
drops of laudanum, say twenty or thirty — with ginger and gentian. Ac- 
cording to my recollection, about one-third of the cases have proved fatal, 
but they have usually been old and feeble sheep. 

Farther inquiry satisfies me that moderate bleeding should be resorted 
to in the first or inflammatory stage of the disease, or whenever decided 
febrile symptoms are found to be present. 

Mr. Youatt prescribes bleeding, cathartics, mashes, gruel, &c. He 
says : 

" Two doses ot" physic having been administered, the practitioner will probably have re- 
course to astringents. The sheep's cordial will probHbly supply him with the best ; and to 
this, tonics may soon begin to be added — an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the 
composition of the cordial, and gentian powder will be a useful auxiliary. With this — as 
an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the mouths of 
the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels which open on the inner surface of the in- 
testine — a half grain of strychnine may be combined Smaller doses should be givea 

for three or four days." 

•Garget — Is an inflammation of the udder, with or without gene- 
ral inflammation. Where simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usual- 
ly caused by a too great accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lamb- 
ing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. It is not the serious mala- 
dy, here, described by the English veterinarians. 

Treatment. — Drawing the milk partly from the bag so that the hungry 
lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, and 
bathing it a few times in cold* water, usually suflices. If the lamb is dead, 
the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the 
udder for some time in cold water at each milking. In cases of obdurate 
induration, the udder should be anointed with iodine ointment. If there 
is general fever in the system, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given. 

NERVOUS DISEASES. 

Apoplexy. — Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of 
the best conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. 

• The English veterinarians recommended wixrm fomentations. 



252 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The symptoms wliich precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. ' 
The sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself ' 
on the ground and suddenly rises, and dies in a few moments. Such '> 
cases occur but now and then, and none have ever occurred in my flock \ 
to my knowledq-e. I have therefore had no opportunity of observing the | 
diao-nosis, or making dissections. There can be little doubt, however, \ 
that the disease is apoplexy. i 

Desirous to raise the condition of a poorish flock (the poorest sheep » 
culled from my other flocks) somewhat too rapidly, perhaps, some winters 1 
since, in addition to good hay three times a day, I ordered them fed a gill f 
of oats per head ; and as rapidly as it could be done without bringing on * 
scours, I had them fed a liberal allowance of Swedish turnips — about as 
much as they would eat up clean. They gained perceptibly. One day a - 
sheep was reported to me as having become suddenly blind and motion- ' 
less. I immediately examined it. It was in good fair condition. It stood ' 
with its head a little down — its eyes were glassy and staring — it was stone ' 
blind ! The evening before nothing unusual had been perceived about it. < 
I bled it at the inner angle of each eye, and the blood had scarcely started * 
before its sight began to return. In less than a minute it walked off 
among its companions. It had no relapse. Another case was soon re- •' 
ported; I treated it in the same way, and with the same apparent effect. I 
The symptoms soon returned, however, and I bled again. This appeared o 
to produce but a partial restoration of the sight. The sheep would not i 
follow its companions into and out of the sheep-house. When approach- ' 
ed, it would run about knocking its head against fences, &c. It lost con- ' 
dition, finally became unable to rise, and died. Another one, after being i 
bled, fed regularly, but its sight was never restored. It lived along thus • 
for tl)ree or four weeks, and then fell into a hole containing water, and I 
perished. Another apparently recovered, all but sight, and continued in '- 
my flock for more than a year afterward. The eye was bright and clear, 
as in gutta serena, and the blindness would not be suspected, unless the ' 
sheep was cornered up. Then, if the catchers remained momentarily « 
still, it would as soon run into their arms or against the fence, as in any 
other direction. Perhaps fifteen cases occurred. In three or four instan- ' 
ces the hlind sheep, when they moved, constantly traveled round in a ' 
circle. In about as many cases, they twisted themselves about without i 
progressing, the head was drawn round toward one side, they fell, ground 
their teeth, and their mouths were covered with a frothy mucus. -In 
neither of the latter description of cases did bleeding at the inner angles i 
of the eyes afford anything more than temporary relief. They all proved j 
fatal. ' 

At the time these things occurred, I regret to say that I had paid but c 
very little attention to veterinary science, and had never made a dissec- 
tion. I did nothing but bleed at the inner angles of the eyes, and made : 
no post-mortem examinations. 

Taking into consideration the feed and the symptoms, there can be but 
little doubt, I think, that all these cases were referable to a determination [ 
of blood to the hrain. The sheep were not fat, but the secretions of ! 
blood were rapidly and powerfully increased by rich and abundant food. 

Treatment. — If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the ; 
mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the respira- | 
tion labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the pulse strong .) 
and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss < 
of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which i 
require immediate and decided treatment. As the good effects of vena- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 253 

ifection, in all cases, and especially in this, depend not only upon the amount 
ibf blood abstracted, but also upon the rapidity with which it is drawn 
|rom the veins, the eye-veins are not the proper ones to open. They are 
,lo small that the blood flows slowly, and if cut directly across, as is usually 
.3one, they soon contract, and the flow of blood is arrested before a suffi- 
jkient quantity has been abstracted. It is better to have recourse at once 
lo the jugular vein. The animal should be bled until an obvious constitu 
^lional effect is produced — the pulse lowered and the rigidity of the muscles 
irelaxed. An aperient should at once follow bleeding, and if the animal is 
itrong and plethoric, a sheep of the size of the Merino would require at 
jeast two ounces of Epsom salts, and one of the large mutton sheep more. 
i[f this should fail to open the bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be 
,ae given, say, twice a day. 

|j In the milder cases which I have mentioned as occurring in my own 
pock, I think had I bled more thoroughly, in the very first attack, and 
jfiven a mild aperient of Epsom salts, most of the sheep would have re- 
Itovered. 

I Phrenitis, Tetanus, Epilepsy, Palsy, Rabies. — I never have seen a 
;tvell-defined case of either of these maladies among our sheep, though, 
|n a few instances, something which struck me at the time as somewhat 
inalogous to paralysis or palsy. Palsy is a diminution or entire loss of 
he powers of motion in some part of the body. I have occasionally 
seen, in the winter, poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble 
swes immediately after yeaning in the spring, lose the power of walking 
>r standing rather too suddenly to have it satisfactorily referable to in- 
itreasing debility. The animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins, 
iJnd the hind-quarters are powerless. It makes ineffectual attempts to 
Kse, and cannot stand if placed upon its feet. 

Treatment. — Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing, might raise 
he patient, but in nineteen cases out of twenty it would be more econo- 
"nical and equally humane, to at once deprive it of life. 

Colic. — Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lyino- 
Jown and rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore 
5nd hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. 
They appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently 
die, unless relieved. This disease is popularly known as the " stretches^^ 
jmd is erroneously attributed to introsusception of an intestine. Some 
farmers worry the sheep with a dog, and others hold it up by the hind 
egs, to eff'ect a cure ! I consider it a sort of flatulent colic induced by 
:ostiveness. 

Treatment. — Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of ginger, and 
nxty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will 
affect the cure, as will an equivalent dose of linseed-oil, or even hog's lard. 



254 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER XVI. 

DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT— (Continued.) 

Cachectic Diseafies... Hydatid on the Brain — diagnosis — common methods of treating it — treatment of 
French and English veterinarians. ..The Pelt Rot. ..Local diseases. ..Grub in the head— the nature of 
the disease, if one — eiToneous popular opinions — location of the grub — description of the fly (CEstrua 
lyvis) — method of attacking the sheep — conduct of the theep — appearance of the larva — its habits — the* 
chrysalis— the larva found in the heads of healthy sheep— not believed to be the cause or source of fatal' 
disease — Mr. Bracy Clark's and Mr. Youatt's opinion — method of preventing and of expelling the grub. .. 
Scab — nature of it— habits of the acari — description of them — contagiousness of the disease — post-mor-J 
tern appearances — treatment.. .Erysipelatous scab — treatment — Disease of Bitlex Canal— nature andji 
tiefitmi;nt. ..Uoof-ail — first indications— erroneous statements of foreign veterinarians — of Mr. Youatt — 
author's experience with it— diagnosis^-chronic hoof ail — can it be cured! — difficulties — preparation of (j 
the loot — ordinary treatment — proper treatment — cost of curing a flock — cheap partial remedies — sug- l 
gestioQS— contagiousness of the disease — how communicated. ..Fouls— cause and treatment. . .Broncho- i 
cele or goitre — diagnosis — treatment. ..Miscellaneous diseases... Poison from eating Laurel — symptoms — j 
treatment. . .Sore Face — cause and treatment. . .Loss of cud — not a disease. . .Hoove — cause- — symptoms — 
cure.. .Obstruction of Gullet, or choking — treatment. ..Fractures — treatment, &c. ..Method of adminis- I 
tering medicine into the stomach... Method of bleeding.. .The place of feeling the pulse.. .List of niedi-; 
cines employed in treating the diseases of sheep.. .Ale. . .Aloes.. .Alum. . .Antimony.. .Arsenic. .Blue, 

Vitriol ... Camphor Carraway seeds Catechu Chalk . . . Corrosive Sublimate . . . Digitalis . . . Epsomi 

Salts... Gentian... Ginger. ..Iodine... Lard... Lime, carbonate of.. .Lime, chloride of.. ..Linseed Oil...| 

Mercury. ..Muriatic Acid. . .Nitrate of Potash. ..Nitrate of Silver. . .Nitric Acid. ..Opium. ..Pepper 

Pimento. ..Rhubarb. ..Salt.. .Sulphate of Iron.. .Sulphur Sulphuric Acid — Spirit of Tar....'rar...(j 

Tobacco. ..Turpentine. ..Verdigi-is. ..Zinc. J 

CACHECTIC DISEASES. 1 



Hydatid on the Brain. — This disease, known as turnsick, sturdy 
staggers, etc., is spoken of by Chancellor Livingston, and other ■writer 
of reputation, as having occurred in this country within their own obser- 
vation. I have never seen a case of it, and shall be obliged, therefore, to 
make use of the descriptions of others. Mr. Spooner says : 

" The symptoms are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating from the flock, aj 
wandeiiiig and blue appearance to the eye, and sometimes partial or total blindness ; the, 
sheep ap[)ears ttnsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others 
gallop across the field, and after the dLsea.se has existed for some time will almost constantly"^ 
move round in a circle — there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of thei| 
animal. These symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently (| 
marked to prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. On e.xamining the brain of J 
Bturdied sheep, we find what appears to be a watery bladder, termed a hydatid, which may ! 
be eitlier small or of the size trf a hen's egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozoons ] 
has been termed by naturalists the hi/dalis jmlycephalus cerebralis, which signifies the 
many-headed hydatid of the brain ; these heads being irregularly distributed on the sur- ! 
face of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by J 
minute sharp hooks witliin a ring of sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of 
attachment by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus 
by the aid of the hooks the parasite is nourished. The coats of the hydatid are disposed^ 
in several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. These facts are/ 
developed by the microscope, which also discovers numerous little bodies adhering to thej 
internal membrane. The fluid in the bladder is usually clear, but occasionally turbid, andj 
then it has been found to contain a number of mituite worms. " 

According to Mr. Youatt, this disease attacks many of the weakly 
lambs in the English flocks. It usually appears, he remarks, " during 
the first year of the animal's life, and when he is about or under six 
months old." It succeeds a " a severe winter and a cold, wet spring." — 
He says : 

" If there is only one parasite inhabiting the brain of a sturdied sheep, its situation is very, 
uncertain. It is mostly found beneath the pia-mater, lying upon the brain, and in or upon 
tlie scissure between the two hemispheres. If it is within the brain, it is generally in one 
of the ventricles, but occasionally iu the substance of the brain, and, in a few instances, in 
that of the cerebellum 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 255 

I This is a singular disease; hut it is a sadly prevalent and fatal one in wet and moorish 

[districts It is much more fatal in France than in Great Britain. It is supposed 

that nearly a million of sheep are destroyed in France every year by this pest of the oviue 

race 

The means of cure are exceedingly limited. They are confined to the removal or de.s- 
truction of the vesicle. Medicine is altogether out of the question here." 

Many bafbarous methods have been adopted to rupture the hydatid, 
which I will not disgust you by repeating. Mr. James Hogg thrust a 
>vire up the nostrils of the sheep, and through the plate of the ethmoid 
bone into the hrain, and thus, as he assures us, punctured the hydatid and 
"'cured many a sheep !" * This practice, which I cannot characterize 
liotherwise than as atrocious, is justly condemned by Mr. Youatt. The 
^dotted lines d, e, and d, d, in fig. 49, show how limited a portion of the 
brain could be reached with a wire or trochar by piercing the plate of the 
liethmoid bone — the only portion of the walls of the skull thin enough to 
lbe so pierced by a trochar introduced at the nostrils. 

; Mr. Parkinson " pulled the ears very hard for some time," and then cut 
them off close to the head ! t 

Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, 
singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and 
finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft 
enough to yield under the pressure of the finger. When such a spot is 
discovered, the English veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular 
integuments, remove a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing 
membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole 
— or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The membranes and 
integuments are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster 
placed over the whole. The French veterinarians usually simply punc- 
ture the cranium and the cist with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its 
back, permit the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A com- 
mon awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture. The puncture 
would be the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. But when 
we take into consideration the hazard and cruelty attending the operation 
at best, and the conceded liability of a return of the malady — the growth 
of new hydatids — it becomes apparent that, in this country, it would not 
be worth while, unless in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to resort 
to any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life. 

Pelt Rot — Is classified as a disease by Mr. Livingston, and various 
other American writers. Mr. Livingston says : 

" This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is in fact a different and less dangerous 
disease ; in this the wool will fall off, and leave the sheep nearly naked ; but it is attended 
with no soreness, though a white crust will cover the skin from the wool which has 
dropped. It generally arises from hai-d keeping and much exposure to cold and wet, and, 
in fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers by the loss of its 
coat. The remedy is full feeduig, and a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skin 
with tar, oil, and butter." % 

I have seen frequent cases of the pelt rot, but never have done any- 
thino- for it, scarcely considering it a disease. If the condition of a poor 
sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, 
the wool is very apt to drop off, and if yet cold, the sheep will require 
warm shelter. 



* Hogg on Sheep, p. 39. 

1 Parkinson on Sheep, vol. 1, p. 412. 

X Livingeton on Sheep, Appendix, p. 179. 



256 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LOCAL DISEASES. 

" Grub in the Head." — If the " grubs " found in the fi-ontal and max* 
illarv sinuses of the sheep actually, in any case, produce disease, it must be, 
in m'v judgment, by the irritation and inflammation which they induce in ' 
the mucous membrane which lines those cavities. The popular theory 
that the grub causes death by boring through the bony walls which sur- 
round the brain, and attacking the substance of the brain itself, is, it seems 
to me, utterly absurd. The only part of the skull where it could even be 
fancied that such a perforation would be practicable, is the cribriform plate 
of the ethmoid bone (11 of fig. 49,) which is very thin and is pierced with 
numerous small holes for the passage of nerves. But an inspection of the 
same figure will show that the sinus where the parasite is generally found 
lodged, is not in immediate juxtaposition with the cribriform plate, and 
that a passage from the former to the brain, would lead directly through 
the fx'ontal bone — the thickest one of the whole cranium. I never saw but 
one grub in the cells of the ethmoid bone near the cribriform plate, and r 
that, I judged at the time, was thrown thei'e accidentally by the violence 
attending the opening of the head.* But if the grub actually penetrates 
to the brain, the fact would readily be disclosed after death. The full- 
grown grub would necessarily leave an orifice of considerable diameter 
throuMi the skull. Who has seen any such orifice in the cribi'iform plate 
or elsewhere ^ Who has seen any orifice but the natural ones of the crib- 
riform T^\dite, filled with the nerves which pass through them ? The farmer 
splits open the head of a sheep with an ax, cutting, mangling and scatter- 
ing its contents, by the i-epeated blows necessary to effect his purpose. — . 
Under such circumstances grubs are sometimes found scattered through 
all the nasal cavities — over and among the brains — and on the ground. — 1 
The proof is just as strong, here, that prior to opening the head, some of , 
the grubs were on the ground, as that they were in the brain ! 

The " grub " of popular parlance is the larva of the CEstrus oris, or gad-fly j 
of the sheep. The latter is represented of the nat- , 

ural size in figures 60 and 61. It is composed of ^'?^' ^^ 
five rings. It is tiger-colored on the back and 
belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of brown. 
The wings are striped. The comparative propor- 
tions of the head, corslet, wings, etc. are sufficient- 
ly seen in the cuts. He who desires a full, scien- 
tific description of these insects, or who would sheep gad-fly. 
fully investigate their habits and economy, will do 

well to consult the excellent monograph of them by Mr. Bracy Clark 
the celebrated veterinai'ian. 

The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nos- 
trils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this, most common in July and Au- 
gust, are always indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps 
with their heads inward and their noses thrust close to the ground, and in- 
to it, if any loose dirt or sand is within their reach. If the fly succeeds in 
depositing its e^^^, it is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture 
of the part, and the young grubs, or larvae, crawl up the nose, finding their 
devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentaculae, they at- 
tach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During 
the ascent of the larvae, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and of- 
ten dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. The larvae I'e- 




* The hea(t was cloven with an ax '. Tt is proper to say, however, that various writers speak of having 
found the grubs in the ethmoid cells, and indeed in all the nasal cavities. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 257 

main in the sinuses feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and 
apparently creating no farther annoyance, until ready to assume their pu- 
pa form in the succeeding spring. Figures 62 and 63 give the shape and 
an upper and under view of the full-grown larva. 



Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 






Fig. 65- 



THE "grub or larva OF THE SHEEP GAD-FLY. 

The body consists of eleven rings, colorless in the young grub, but the 
elevated portions growing darker with age, and becoming a dark brown 
when the full size is attained. There are round spots of a still darker 
color on each of these bands. At the edges of the lings are a few short 
hairs, and lower down some round darkish spots, as shown in fig. 62. — 
Small red spines, as shown in fig. 63, cover the space between the rings 
on the belly. The remainder of the body (with the exception of the poste- 
rior stigmata) is white. The tentaculae, as well as certain appendages on 
each side of the anus, the purposes of which have not been discovered, are 
seen in fig. 63. 

The larva having remained in the sinuses through the fall and winter, 
abandons them as the warm weather advances in the latter part of sprino-. 
It crawls down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement 
than when it originally ascended, drops on the ground, and rapidly bur- 
rows into it. In a few hours its skin has contracted, become of a dark 
brown color, and it has assumed the form of a chrysalis, as seen in fio-. 64. 
Or rather, this figure exhibits the shell of the chrysalis, af- 
ter the escape of the fly ; and fig. 65 shows the upper ex- 
tremity or head of the pupa, detached by the fly in its es- 
cape. 

The experiments of Valisnieri go to show that the CEs- 
trus ovis never eats — and this is the received opinion. — 
The male, after impregnating two or three females, dies, 
and the latter having deposited their ova in the nostrils 
of the sheep, also soon perish. 

The larva in the heads of sheep may, and probably do 
add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which 
attack the membraneous lining of the nasal cavities ; and they are, as we 
have seen, a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance, 
when ascending to and descending from their lodging-place in the head. 
But in the interval between these events — extending over a period of 
several months — not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoy- 
ance at their presence, or reveals to the veterinarian whether they exist in 
the sinuses or not. It would be very difficult to believe that all the local 
irritation which these parasites could cause, would be sufficient to termi- 
nate life, and, so far as my observation has extended, post-mortem exam- 
ination discloses no lesions which would in anywise sanction such belief. 
The larvae, moreover, are found, at the proper season, in the heads of near- 
ly all sheep — the healthy as well as the diseased — and I never have been 
able to ascertain that the number of them is greater, on the average, in the 
heads of those sheep which were supposed to have fallen victims to their 
attacks, than in the heads of perfectly Jicalthy sheep slaughtered for the 
table. And to prove that the popular ideas on the subject are but vague 

3K 



SHELL 
OF CHRYSALIS. 



258 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

and crude — not the result of that long and close comparison of symptoms, 
results, and post-mortem appearances, which would give weight to the 
opinions of the most unerudite — we have but to notice a few of the cases 
popularly referred to the " grub in the head." A sheep in the highest 
condition and apparent health leaps into the air two or three times, and 
suddenly dies, and if a grub can be found in the cavities of the head, that 
is the undoubted destroyer. Another wastes away for months and dies 
lingeringly, a mere skeleton, and the same proof establishes the same fact. 
Whether there has been fever or no fever — whether there has been obsti- 
nate constipation, or equally obstinate dysentery — whether one viscus or 
another exhibit traces of abnormal action — whether the disease has been 
acute or chronic — in a word, whatever the form or character of the mal- 
ady — however diaraetx-ically difll'erent the diagnosis and the lesions, it is a 
clear case of " grub in the head," if two or three of those parasites are 
found there ! 

Mr. Bracy Clark and Mr. Youatt, so far from regarding the larva of the 
CEstrus ovis as the cause of a fatal disease, suggest that they may even 
promote the health of the sheep by diminishing the tendency to cerebral 
disease — especially determinations of blood — by establishing counter irri- 
tation ! Mr. Spooner does not speak of their producing fatal effects in 
any instances, nor am I aware that any late scientific veterinarians do. 

Treatment. — Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, 
some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. — 
One simple way of effecting this is by turning up with a plow a furrow of 
earth in the sheep pasture. Into this the sheep will thrust their noses on 
the approach of the CEstrus, and thus many of them escape its attacks. — 
Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep witii tar occasionally, during 
the proper season — the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Othera 
compel the sheep to smear their own noses every week or two, by feed- 
ing them their salt sprinkled over tar. Blacklock says that the larvae may 
be dislodged even from the sinuses, by blowing tobacco smoke for some 
moments through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. I have never tried 
the experiment. 

The Scab. — The scab is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange 
in horses and the itch in men. It is caused and propagated by a minute 
insect, the acarus. M. Walz, a German veterinarian, who has thrown 
great light on the habits of these parasites, says : 

" If one or more female acari are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel 
to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, the place at which they penetrated being 
Bcarcely visible, or only distinguished by a minute red point. On tiie tenth or twelfth day a 
little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has a 
greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, 
and the mothers again appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by 
a pordon of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These little ones im- 
mediately set to work, and penetrate the neighboring skin, and buiy themselves beneath it, 
and find their proper nourishment, and grow and propagate, until the poor animal has myri- 
ads of them to prey on him, and it is not wonderful that he should speedily sink. Some of 
the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a sheep, and they too burrowed their way 
and disappeared for a while, and the pustule in due time arose ; but the itching and the 
Bcab soon disappeared without the employment of any remedy. 

The figures on the next page are copied from M. Walz's work : 
The female acarus brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a litter. 
The scab is often produced spontaneously in England by mismanage- 
ment of various kinds, such as " bad keep, starvation, hasty driving, 
dogging, and exposure afterward to cold and wet j" and it spreads rapidly 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



259 



by contagion. It is very prevalent there, and annually causes an immense 
loss in the wool and flesh of the British flocks. In the United States it is 
comparatively little known, and so far as I am able to learn, never origin- 
ates spontaneously. It is a singular fact that short-wooled sheep, like the 



Fig. 66. 



Fig. 67. 



Fig. 68. 




THE ACARUS WHICH CAUSES SCAB. 

Fig. 67. — The acari of their natural size on a dark ground. 

Fig. fifi. — The female of 366 times the natural size, larger than the male, of an oval form, and provided 
with eight feet, four before and four behind. 
o. — The sucker. 

b. b. b. b. — The four anterior feet, with their tnimpet-like appendices. 

c. c. — The two interior hind feet. 

d. d. — The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some long hairs, and on the 
other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the young ones adhere, when they first escape 
from the pustule. 

e. — The tail, containing the anus and vulva, garnished with some short hairs. 
Fig. 68. — The male on its back, and seen by the same magnifying power. 
a. — The sucker. 

b. b. b. 6.— The fore-legs with their trumpet-like appendices, as seen in the female. 

c. c— The two hind-legs, with the same appendices and hairs. 
d. — The rudiments of the abdominal feet. 

e.— The tail. 

Merino, are much less subject to its attacks, and this is probably one 
reason for its little comparative prevalence in the United States. Mr. 
Youatt observes : 

" The old and unhealthy sheep are first attacked, and long-wooled sheep in preference to 
the short ; a healthy short-wooled sheep will long bid defiance to the contagion, or probably 
escape it altogether." 

It spreads from individual to individual and from flock to flock, not only 
by means of direct contact, but by the acari left on posts, stones, and other 
substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy 
sheep are therefore liable to contract the malady if turned on pastures pre- 
viously occupied by scabby sheep, though some considerable time may 
have elapsed since the departure of the latter. 

The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs it- 
self with violence against trees, stones, fences, &c. It scratches itself 
with its feet, and bites its sores and tears off its wool with its teeth. As 
the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs covering 
red, inflamed sores. The sores constantly extend, increasing the misery 
of the tortured animal. If unrelieved, he pines away and soon perishes. 

I have never had an opportunity to observe the post-mortem appear- 
ances. Mr. Youatt says : 

" The post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There is generally 
chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a great number of worms. The 
liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged ; and there are frequently serous effu 



260 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

sioQS in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between 
the digestive and tlie cutaneous systems." 

Treatment. — About twelve years since, I purchased 150 fine-wooled 
sheep just driven into the county from a considerable distance. I placed 
them on a farm then owned by me, in another town, and did not see them 
for about three weeks. One of my men then reported to me that the sheep 
were amiss — that they were shedding off' their wool — sore spots were be- 
ginning to show on them — and that they rubbed themselves against the 
fence-corners, &c. Though I had never seen the scab, 1 took it for granted 
that this was the disease. No time was to be lost, as I had 700 other 
sheep on the farm — though fortunately, thus far, the new comers had been 
kept entirely separate from them. Barely looking into Mr. Livingston's 
work for a remedy, I provided myself with an ample supply of tobacco 
and set out. The sheep had been shorn, and their backs were covered 
with scabs and sores. They evidently had the scab. I had a large potash 
kettle sunk partly in the ground as an extempore vat, and an unweighed 
quantity of tobacco put to boiling in several other kettles. The only care 
was to have enough of the decoction, as it was rapidly wasted, and to have 
it strong enough. A little spirits of turpentine was occasionally thrown on 
the decoction, say to every third or fourth sheep dipped. It was neces- 
sary to use it sparingly, as, not mixing with the fluid and floating on the 
surface, too much of it otherwise came in contact with the sheep. Not at- 
tending to this at first, two or three of the sheep are thrown into great ag- 
ony, and appeared to be on the point of dying. I had each sheep caught 
and its scabs scoured off, by two men who rubbed them with stiff" shoe- 
brushes, dipped in a suds of tobacco-water and soft soap. The two men 
then dipped the sheep all over in the large kettle of tobacco-water, rub- 
bing and kneading the sore spots with their hands while immersed in the 
fluid. The decoction was so strong that many of the sheep appeared to be 
sickened either by immersion or by its fumes ; and one of the men who 
dipped, though a tobacco-chewer, vomited, and became so sick that his 
place had to be supplied by another. 

The effect on the sheep was almost magical ! The sores rapidly healed, 
the sheep gained in condition, the new wool immediately started, and I 
never had a more perfectly healthy flock on my farm. Though adminis- 
tered with little reference to economy, the reinedy was a decisive one. — 
With a vat like fig. 27, (Letter XII,) this would not necessarily be a very 
expensive method, with sheep recently sheared. But the assaults of the 
scab usually come on in the spring before shearing time, and it would re- 
quire an immense quantity of the tobacco decoction to dip sheep with their 
fleeces on, however carefully it might be pressed out. 

The following is the remedy recommended by Chancellor Livingston : 

" First, I separate the sheep (for it is very infectious) ; I then cut off the wool as far as the 
skin feels hard to the finger ; the scab is then washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard with 
a shoe-brush, so as to cleanse and break the scab. I always keep for this use a decoction 
of tobacco, to which I add one-third by measure of the lye of wood ashes, as much hog's-lard 
as will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of lar from the tar-bucket, which contains 
grease, and about one-eighth of the whole by measure of spirits of turpentine. This liquor 
18 rubbed unon the part nifected, and spread to a little distance round it, in three washings, 
with an interval of three days each. I have never failed in this way to eflect a cure when 

the disorder was only partial 1 cannot say whether it would cure a sheep infected 

80 as to lose half its fleece."* 

The following remedies are much used in Great Britain : 

No. 1. — Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of 

** Livingston's Essay. Appendix, p. 177. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 261 

half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The sheep should pre- 
viously be washed in soap and water. The infusion must not be per- 
mitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. 

No. 2. — Take common mercuiial ointment, for bad cases, rub it own 
with three times its weight of lard — for ordinary cases, five times its weight 
of lard. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part the 
wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then 
apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a sim- 
ilar furrow and application, on each side, four inches from the first, and so 
on over the whole body. The quantity of ointment (after being com- 
pounded with the lard) should not exceed two ounces, and considerably 
less will generally suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a 
grown sheep. This will generally cure, but if the sheep should continue 
to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days. 

No. 3. — Take of lard or palm oil 2 lbs., oil of tar i lb., sulphur 1 lb. — 
Gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first. — 
Apply in the same way as No. 2. 

No 4. — Take of corrosive sublimate I lb., white hellebore, powdered, | 
lb., whale (jr other oil 6 gallons, rosin 2 lbs., tallow 2 lbs. " The first two 
to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the 
whole to be gradually mixed." This is a powerful preparation and must 
not be applied too freely. 

Mr. Spooner gives the preference to No. 1, as least troublesome ; Mr. 
Youatt to No. 2 ; and the author of the Mountain Shepherd's Manual to 
No. 4. I should certainly prefer No. 3, if it is, as it is asserted to be, 
equally effectual, for the reason that it contains no poisonous or dangerous 
ingredients. 

An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable itch- 
ing, sometimes attacks the English flocks, but I have heard of no cases of 
it here. This would be classified as a febrile disease. ]t is treated with 
a cooling purgative, venesection, and oil or lard applied to the sores. 

Disease of the Biflex Canal. — From the introduction of foreign bod- 
ies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the 
seat of inflammation. This is sometimes confounded with the hoof-ail, 
but the diseases are entirely distinct and different from each other. In- 
flammation of the biflex canal causes an enlargement and redness of the 
pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are 
thrown wide apart by the tumor. I never have known it to attack more 
than one foot, and never have allowed it to go to the point of ulceration, 
which it is said to do if neglected. There is none of that soreness and 
disorganization between the back part of the toes — and none of that pecu- 
liar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail. I never have found it anything 
like so serious a disease as it is described to be by the English veterina- 
rians. 

Treatment — I have always scarified the coronet, making one or two 
deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal 
— covered the foot with tar — and paid no more attention to it. 

Hoof- Ail. — The fii'st symptom of this troublesome malady, which is or- 
dinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore feet. But on daily 
examining the feet of aflock which have the disease among them, it will be 
readily seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before 
they are followed with lameness. Scarcely any English writer whom I 



262 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

have read, describes with respectable accuracy the first appearances of 
the hoof-ail as it exhibits itself in this country, and aviong the Jine-wooled 
sheep* Mr. Youatt says : 

" The foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usnal, and there will be en- 
largement about the cort)net, and a slight separation of the hoof from it, with portions of the 
horu worn away, and ulcers fomied below, and a discharge of their fetid matter. The ul- 
cers, if neglected, continue to increase ; they throw out fungous granulations, they separate 
the hoof more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it drops off.'' 

The above is not a description of the consecutive symptoms of the hoof- 
ail as / have seen them. The hoof, instead of being softened, is percepti- 
bly hardened, I think, by the presence of the disease. There is occasion- 
ally an enlargement about the coronet, but this is not common in the out- 
set; and so far from the horn first separating from the foot at that point, it 
is the last place where it usually adheres when the soles are eaten away 
by the ulcerous matter, and the mere outside shell remains. I never have 
known a hoof to drop off, entire, in the sense in which 1 understand the 
closing part of Mr. Youatt's remark. 

My first introduction to this disease was by its breaking out in its most 
malignant form in a flock of eight hundred sheep, with which I had placed, 
early in the preceding spring, a few valuable sheep received from abroad 
which were infected with the hoof-ail, without my'having the slightest sus- 
picion of the fact. The disease, when of long standing, and well kept un- 
der, shows itself but very little during the winter and spring, unless the 
foot is directly examined. Every sheep in that eight hundred took the 
disease, sometimes first in one foot, then in another, then in a third, and 
when the fourth one was attacked, perhaps it was again bursting out in 
one of the cured, feet ! I considered the sheep valuable, had much of the 
esprit du corps of a young flock-master, and was determined, to conquer the 
malady at any cost and at all hazards. I have little doubt that every sheep 
in the flock was " doctored " on the average ten times each, and it was 
very rarely that I permitted any other person than myself to cut away the 
horn and prepare the foot of a single sheep for the application of the reme- 
dies ! When I look back to that period — the sheep on some remote pas- 
tures — not a shed on them to shelter myself or assistants from the burning 
August sun as we bent ten or twelve hours a day over our task — our only 
" operating room" a yard in the corner of two fields — blood and pus en- 
crusting hands and garments, and occasionally by an unlucky stroke of the 
knife showered over face and bosom — the crawling maggots — the intolera- 
ble fetor : — I hardly know whether to take credit to myself for or to laugh 
at the stanchness of my zeal. But, worst of all, with all my labor, I had 

" scotch'd the snake, not killed it ! " 

The disease appeared in my flock, though in a much mitigated form, 
the next summer. I think I then cured it — but I was not allowed to es- 
cape thus. In the succeeding summer, accident again brought it among 
my sheep. In a word, I have first and last served a five years' appren- 
ticeship to combating the hoof-ail. Having seen it in every possible phase 
— having experimented with almost every recommended remedy not obvi- 
ously empirical — I shall be excused if I speak my own opinions with a de- 

* As 1 have before stated, when discussing " the most profitable breed for the Pouth," the hoof of the Me- 
rino and that of the En^;lish Long-Wnoled races, is esaentially ditferent. The latter usually retains its natu- 
ral shape iinil thickness, and although the side-crust sometimes turns under, it is but a comparatively thin 
slip of horn, which is subsequently worn or broken otf— or it is easily removed by the knife. Tbe hoof of 
the Merino grows Ti\\>\diy, esprciallyw/ten the animal has the hiiof nil. The horny soles will sometimes be- 
come nearly an inch thick, and the toes will elongate and turn up in front like hums, to the length of three 
and even four inches. The weight of the Merino is much less than that of the Long- Wool. Take these 
facts into consideration, together with some of the other circumstances detailed in the introductory remarks 
to Letter XIV, and perhaps it sufficiently accounts for some difl'erences in the diagnosis of the disease be- 
tween ibe two countries. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 263 



gree of confidence, even if they chance to conflict with those of professed 
and eminent veterinarians. 

j As all are aware, the horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, 
gi-adually thinning out, some way between the toes or divisions of the hoof, 
and above these horny walls the "cleft" is lined with skin. When the 
ipoints of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered 
with short, soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the " heels," can be sep- 
arated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is 
naked. In a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, 
sound, dry and uneroded, as on any other part of the animal. 

The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with in- 
ftammation and heat of the naked skin in the back part of the cleft, imme- 
diately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated appearance, and 
: is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated sur- 
face. As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain 
and the sheep limps. At this stage the foot externally, in a great ma- 
jority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception 
of a slight redness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the 
upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind. 

The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges 
of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is estab- 
lished between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is 
exuded from the cavity. The extent of the separation daily increases, and 
the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom of the 
hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, en- 
tirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coro- 
net. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire 
foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration ; or, as it more commonly hap- 
pens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the 
surface, and burrow in every cavity. The fore-feet are generally first at- 
tacked, and most usually but one of them. The animal at first manifests 
but little constitutional disturbance. It eats as usual. By the time that 
any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the 
first foot — sometimes sooner — the other fore-foot is attacked. That be- 
coming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its 
knees, and if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense 
agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There 
is a bare spot under the brisket of the size of the palm of a man's hand, 
which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever — and 
the appetite is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance 
of the maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in 
contact with the side in lying down, the filthy ulcerous matter adheres to and 
saturates the short wool, (it being but a month and a half or two months af- 
ter shearing,) and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they 
are soon generated there. A black crust is soon formed round the spot. 
It is the decomposition of the suirounding structures, and innumerable 
maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and mus- 
cles and eating up the miserable animal alive. The black festering mass 
rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, we cannot suppose other- 
wise than in tortures the most excruciating. 

Sometimes but one fore-foot is attacked, and subsequently one or both 
hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular, and it is a singular 
fact that when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the 
fourth may be entirely sound. So also one foot may be cured, while ev- 
ery other one is laboring under the malady. 



264 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

The highly offensive odor of tlie ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is 
strictly pathognomonic of the disease — and would reveal its character to 
one familiar with it, in the darkest night. 

When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of 
its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear 
as cold weather approaches, and does not manifest itself until the warm 
weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a mitigated form — 
the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked — there seems to be 
less intlammatoi'y action, constitutionally, and in the diseased parts — the 
course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readi- 
ly yields to treatment. If well kept under the second summer, it is still 
milder the third. A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its con- 
dition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely su- 
pervene. One or two applications made during the summer, in such a 
way, as I shall presently describe, that one thousand sheep can be sub- 
mitted to the treatment in half a day — with but a trifle of labor and ex- 
pense — will now suffice to keep the disease under. At this point a little 
vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish the disease. 

With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof-ail be cured in its 
Jirst attack on a flock % The woi'st case can be promptly cured, as I know 
by repeated experiments. Take a single sheep, put it by itself, and ad- 
minister the remedies daily after the English fashion, or as I shall 
presently prescribe, and there is not an ovine disease which more surely 
yields to treatment. But as already remarked, in a preceding Letter, in 
this country, where sheep are so cheap, and labor in the summer months 
so dear, it would out of the question for an extensive flock-master to at- 
tempt to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daily application of rem- 
edies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge who has ever 
pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once a week, or regularly as 
often as that, and not one in ten makes any separation between the dis- 
eased and healthy sheep of a flock into which the malady has been once in- 
introduced. The consequence necessarily is that though you may cure the 
sheep 710W diseased, it has infected or inoculated others — and these in turn 
scatter the contagion, before they are cured. There is not a particle of 
doubt — nay, I know, by repeated obsei^vation, that a sheep once entirely 
cured may again contract the disease, and thus the malady performs a per- 
petual circle in the flock. Fortunately, however, the susceptibility to con- 
tract the disease diminishes, according to my observation, with every suc- 
ceeding attack; and fortunately also, as already stated, succeeding attacks, 
cceteris paribus, become less and less virulent. 

What course shall then be pursued ? Shall the flock-master sacrifice 
his sheep — shall he take the ordinary half-way course — or shall he expend 
more on the sheep than they are worth in attempting to cure them % Nei- 
ther. The course I would advise him to pursue, will appear as I detail 
the experiments I have made. 

Treatment. — 'Y\ie preparation of the foot, where any separate individual 
treatment is resolved upon — and this is always necessary, at least in bad 
cases — is a subject of no dispute. But the labor can be prodigiously 
economized by attention to a few not very commonly observed particulars. 
Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if prac- 
ticable, as then the hoofs can be readily cut. In a dry time, and after a 
night which has left no dew on the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough 
as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their 
way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet. — 
The yard must be small, so they can be easily caught, and it must be kept 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 265 



well littered down, so tliey shall not fill their feet with their own excre- 
ment. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will notof couise dry and harden 
jas rapidly as in dry straw. Could the yard he built over a shallow, grav- 
'elly-bottomed brook,* it would be an admirable arrangement. The hoofs 
, would be kept so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the la- 
jbor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they 
would be kept free from that dung which by any other arrangement will, 
jmore or less, get into their clefts. 

' The principal operator or foreman seats himself in a chair — a couple of 
good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers (fig. 21, Letter XII,) 
a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, and such medicines as 
he chooses to employ, within his reach. The assistant catches a sheep and 
lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the 
head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then kneels on some 
straw or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. 
If the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, tlie assist- 
ant presents each foot to the foreman, who shortens the hoof with the toe- 
nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each man takes his rag 
from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes and rinses it, un- 
til the filth is removed. Each then seize their knives, and the process of 
paring away the horn commences. And on the effectual performance of 
this, all else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat 
of the diseased action. The least experience cannot fail in properly set- 
tling this question. An experienced finger, placed on the back of the 
pastern close above the heel, would at once detect the local inflammation 
(by its heat) in the dark. 

If the disease is in the first stage — i.e. there is merely an erosion and ul- 
ceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the walls of the hoof, no 
paring is necessary. But if ulceration has established itself between the 
hoof and the fleshy sole, the ulcerated parts, be they more or less exten- 
sive, MUST BE ENTIRELY DENUDED OP THEIR HORNY COVERING, COSt what it 

may of time and care. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it 
to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent applica- 
tion, but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with 
the rule above laid down. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after 
a little while, during which time no application need be made to the foot. 

If the foot is in the third stage — a mass of rottenness and filled with 
maggots — in the first place pour a little spirits of turpentrtie (a bottle of it, 
with a quill through the cork, should be always ready,) on the maggots 
and most of them will immediately decamp, and the others can be re- 
moved with a probe or small stick. Then remove every particle of loose 
horn, though it should take the entire hoof — and it will generally take the 
whole hoof in such cases. The foot should be now cleansed with a solu- 
tion of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one 
gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in 
water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. The great 
object is to clean the foot thoroughly. If there are any considerable fun- 
gous granulations, (" proud-flesh,") they should be excised with a pair of 
scissors, or the actual cautery (hot iron.) 

And now comes the important question what constitutes the hrst remedy ? 
The recommended prescriptions are innumerable. The following are 
some of the most popular ones.t 1. 4 oz, blue vitriol, 2 oz. of verdigris. 



* A portion of any little brook might be prepared by planking the bottom, and widening it if desirable, 
t The first three are given io the American Shepherd, pp. 379-80. 

3L 



266 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



to a junk-bottle of wine. 2. Spirits turpentine, tar and verdigris in equal 
parts. 3. 3 quarts of alcohol, 1 pint spirits of turpentine, i pint of strong 
vinegar, 1 lb. blue vitriol, 1 lb. copperas, 1^ lbs. verdigris, 1 lb. alum, 1 lb. j 
of saltpetre, pounded fine : mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it 
stand six or eight days before using: also mix 2 pounds of honey and 2 ! 
quarts of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound. " Two i 
applications will entirely remove the disease," says this recipe, which ' 
was once, I believe, hawked about the country as a patent cure^ — being ^I 
sold at five dollais to each purchaser, he giving a promise of inviolable se- jl 
crecy ! 4. Apply diluted aquafortis (nitric acid^ with a feather to the ul- i 
cerated surface. 5. Apply diluted oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in the !J 
same way. 6. Same of muriatic acid. 7, Dip the foot in tar nearly at i, 
the boiling point, &c. ;| 

After a thorough trial of the above and a multitude of other prescrip- f, 
tions,* I have come to the conclusion that in the first and second stages of ■! 
the disease — before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and | 
wholly or partly destroyed its structure — that no application, simple or | 
compound, is prefei-able to a saturated solution of blue vitiiol, (sulphate of ' 
copper.) In my judgment, no beneficial addition can be made to it as a j| 
remedy. Of the manner of applying it I shall speak presently. i 

In the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after * 
it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to l 
remove the unhealthy granulations — the dead muscular structures — and { 
to restore healthy action. Lunar caustic I think preferable to any other 
application, but it is too expensive. Mr. Youatt gives a decided prefer- j 
ence to chloride of antimony, and I think him correct. This is frequently \ 
not attainable in the country drug-stores, and muriatic acid may be re- j 
sorted to, or even nitric or sulphuric acid. The diseased surface is touched 
with the caustic (applied with a swab formed by fastening a little tow on \ 
the end of a stick,) until the objects above pointed out are obtained. I j 
have then usually treated the foot with the solution of blue vitriol, and sub- j 
sequently coated it over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly 
cooled. The last protects the raw wound from dirt, flies, &c. Sheep in 
this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock, ; 
and looked to as often as once in three days. With this degree of atten- \ 
tion, their cure will be rapid, and it is astonishing with what celerity the ] 
obliterated structures of the foot will be restored. 

The ordinary method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it 
from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies \ 
on its back between the operators, as already described. In this way a i 
few cents' worth of vitriol will serve for a large number of sheep. But | 
the method is imperfect, because, without remarkable care, there will al- 1 
most always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife — the 
passages to them will be devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed — 
and the solution will not reach them. Thus the disease will only be tem- 
porarily suppressed, not cured. I 

I had a flock of sheep a few years since which were in the second sea- ■ 
son of the disease. They had been but little looked to during the sum- 
mer, and as cold weather was setting in, many of them were consid- 
erably lame — some of them quite so. The snow fell and they were brought 
into the yards, limping and hobbling about deplorably. This sight, so dis- 
graceful to me as a farmer, roused me into activity. I bought a quantity 

*Many of them resorted to "against the stomach of my sense," to give myself and others indisputable 
ocular proof of their inutility — or that ihey were no better than cheaper, simpler, and more easily attain- \ 
able medicines. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 267 

)f blue vitriol — made the necessary arrangements — and once more took 
lithe chair as principal operator ! Never were the feet of a flock more 
jthoroughly pared. Into a large washing tub, in which two sheep could 
stand conveniently, I poured a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water, 
ps hot as could be endured by tlie hand even for a moment. The liquid was 
jabout four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at about 
that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As soon as a sheep's feet 
[were pared, it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck, by an as- 
sistant. A second one was prepared and placed beside it. When the 
third one was ready, \h^ first was taken out, and so on. Two sheep were 
jthus constantly in the tub, and each remained in it about five minutes. — 
''The cure was perfect ! There was not a lame sheep in the flock during 
jthe winter or the next summer ! The hot liquid penetrated to every 
icavity of the foot, and doubtless had a far more decisive effect even on the 
'Uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. 
jPerhaps the lateness of the season was also favorable, as in cold weather 
the ulcers of ordinary virulence discharge no matter to inoculate the healthy 
feet, and thus, at the time of applying the remedy, there are no cases where 
jthere has been inoculation not yet followed by those lesions which admit 
jof cure. Whether so thorough a soaking would destroy the virus in the in- 
oculated foot, I cannot pretend to decide. 

I think that the vitriol required for the above one hundred sheep was 
about twelve pounds, and that it cost me fifteen cents per pound. The ac- 
count then would stand thus : 

12 lbs. of vitriol at 15 cents $1,80 

Labor of 3 men one day each 2,25 

Total «4,05 

lor about four cents per sheep. I have not a doubt that three such appli- 
cations at intervals of a week, would effectually cure the disease, as every 
new case would be arrested and cured before it had time to inoculate 
others. I have no doubt that it would do this at any time of year, and 
even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion, pro- 
viding THE PARING WAS SUFFICIENTLY THOROUGH. The second and third 
parings would be a mere trifle, and the liquid left at the first and second 
applications could again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about 
I twelve cents per head. This is vastly cheaper in the long run than the 
1 ordinary temporizing method — where people count the cost of a few 
pounds of blue vitriol, but not their time, and who thus keep the disease 
, lingering in their flocks for years. Indeed, if partial and temporizing 
! treatment is all that is aimed at, — if the flockmaster is content to simply 
i keep the disease under — I can point out methods cjuite as efficacious as 
the common one by paring and applying washes from a bottle — as ordina- 
rily 'performed — and not costing a tithe as much. 

Between the corners of two sheep-pastures (1, 2, of fig. 69,) construct 
the dividing fence as represented in the cut. A j,. ^^ 

narrow passage is thus left from one field to an- 

other. This passage should be about 2 or 2^ feet 
wide and 12 feet long. The fence on each side ^ 

of the passage should be an upright board fence, 
so that the space can be entirely filled on the bot- 
tom with a flat trough, (the bottom formed of a i 
plank) with side and end boards about five inches 
high. In this trough place say a bushel and a half or two bushels of un. 




2 



268 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. j 

slacked lime,* slack it, and then fill the trough nearly full of water. — j 
Throuo-h this drive the flock several times fi'om one field to the other — un- ' 
til the lame ones manifest much suffering. Repeat this once a week the jj 
first summer that the disease appears, putting in fresh lime each lime. — | 
This does not appear to cure the hoof-ail, but it keeps it under ; the sheep *! 
keep their condition, and show little lameness. The second or third sum- ' 
mer of the disease, three or four such applications usually answer for the ; 
entire season. Some use dry slacked lime, as the same trough-full will 1 
then answer for several applications. The trough in this case must have ( 
a roof over it. I never have tried the last method. If the dry lime will [ 
get sufficiently between the toes — and it is said to — it will answer the | 
purpose where it touches more effectually than even the liquid, but it | 
would not be so likely to penetrate into cavities. Some who use the lime ji 
remedy, pare the feet once pretty thoroughly prior to the first application, i 
but afterward neglect them. Others neglect paring entirely, i. e. beyond >, 
shortening the toes once a year, as is practiced with all fine-wooled flocks. | 

Fig. 70 is an improvement on the p. ^q jjj 

more common arrangement exhib- — : 

ited in fig. 69. The dotted lines 1 
enclose good-sized yards in the cor- j 
ners of two adjoining pastures. — j 
Two drivers can yard the sheep in j 
one of these, and drive the sheep j 
from one to the other any number 
of times, without chasing them 
about a large field. The labor can 

therefore be performed much more rapidly, and it requires less force. A 
couple of active fellows would yard and submit a flock of two or three 
hundred sheep to the process in less than an hour. When the sheep are 
first yarded, if there are any very lame ones, draw them out and place 
them in one of the small pens {a, b.) Their feet can be examined, and if 
necessary a little extra pains taken with them, by paring, cauterizing, etc. 
Each sheep as treated is put into the other small pen, where it can be re- 
tained until the flock is discharged, and then removed to a separate pas- 
ture from the others, if considered desirable. 

Where two yards are constructed, as in fig. 70, it is obvious that the ar- 
rangement can be made elsewhere as well as in the corner of two fields, 
though if the sheep are wild, it may require a few rods of wing fence (in 
the place of the dividing one between the fields, as seen in figures 69 and 
70,) for the more convenient cornering of the sheep to yard them. Thus 
one such apparatus might be made to conveniently answer for a whole 
fai-m, though thousands of diseased sheep were scattered in different flocks 
over it, and may be placed at a spot where water, etc. are convenient. 

Where lime and water are used, the sheep must be driven through the 
trough slowly and quietly — as otherwise the lime will be scattered over 
their wool, into their eyes, &c. If the lime is fresh burned and highly 
caustic, it would be likely to destroy their eyes. Indeed, pure fresh-burned 
lime sometimes will take the hair off from their pasterns and shanks. It is 
better, therefore, to use it when somewhat re-carbonized by exposure to 
the air. 

Wood ashes are said to produce the same effect with lime. It is claimed 
that sheep kept on lands where the timber has been recently burned, 
(" new clearings,") will recover from the hoof-ail. Query : If this be true 

* To be added to, from time to time, if the number of Bheep run through is large enough to waste it mate- 
rially, before they are sutliciently treated. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 269 



might not the lye of ashes, of the proper strength, make an adequate sub 
stitute for Hme and water 1 

i Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy 
kbr hoof-ail ! Opposed as it would seem to be to sound theory — sadly as 
jit is at variance with the practice of foreign veterinarians who employ 
''" tow-pledgets," " gaiter boots," etc., to exclude all dirt from the diseased 
Isurface, it does actually seem in cases of ordinary virulence — especially 
jwhere the disease is chronic — to dry up the ulcers and keep tlie malady under! 
' There is an important point to be regarded in exhibiting remedies for 
the hoof-ail, the mention of which I have reserved until now, as it concerns 
\all remedies equally. Many farmers select rainy weather to " doctor" the 
sheep. Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good 
economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, pro- 
wided they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any kind, 
until the rain is over and the grass again dry. If immediately let out in 
wet o-rass of any length, the vitriol or other application is measurably 
washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in warm tar 
— an excellent plan under such circumstances. The tar is probably a good 
application at any time, but I do not consider it necessary, in ordinary 
cases, unless the sheep must be turned out into wet grass. 

A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, are considered 
more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable 
to contract the disease from any casual exjjosure — and its ravages are far 
less violent and general among them. 

I am strongly disposed to believe that hoof-ail is propagated in this 
country only by inoculation — the contact of the matter of a diseased foot 
with the integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is 
propagated in some of those ways classed under the ordinary designation 
of contagion is certain. I could indisputably authenticate more than a 
hundred cases, where the sheep on a farm, indeed through a neighbor- 
hood, had been notoriously exempt from hoof-ail from the first settlement 
of the country — so that the inhabitants did not even know what the disease 
■was — until some diseased flock was introduced from abroad. It was so in 
the reo-ion where I live, and I well recollect when a flock of Saxons, driven 
from a neighboring county, first introduced it among our sheep. There 
has not been a diseased flock in the county which could not trace it back 
to that flock. And the contagion wae spread by them as readily on our 
dry hill-farms as on low and moist ones. 

That it may be propagated by inoculation I know by direct experiment 
I have placed the matter of diseased feet on the skin lining the cleft of a 
healthy foot under a variety of circumstances — sometimes when that skin 
was in its ordinary and natural state — sometimes after a very slight scari- 
fication — sometimes when macerated by moisture. The disease has been 
communicated under each of these circumstances, and in a majority of all 
the instances, amounting to sixteen or seventeen. 

That there is not even a supposed or pretended case, to my knowledge, 
on record where the disease has originated spontaneously, in the Northern 
States, I have already asserted.* I regard Professor Dick's statements 
of the manner in which the disease originates, which I have quoted.t as 
■wholly inapplicable to our country loitk its present breeds of sJieep, and I 
cannot sufficiently express my surprise that this eminent veterinarian 
should nave adopted — what I deem so unqualified an absurdity — the non- 
contagion theory. 

I have been disposed to trace the propagation of the disease exclusive- 

*In the beginning of Letter XIV. \Vo. 



270 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. \ 

ly to tnoctdation, from having observed on my own farm and elsewhere, | 
that healthy flocks have occupied with impunity fields adjoining those oc- 1 
cupied by diseased ones — an open board or rail fence only separating 
them. I have drawn the same inference also from the manner in which % 
the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or any considerable number, though 
sometimes rapidly, are never simultaneously attacked, as we should expect ( 
among animals so gregarious, if the disease could be communicated by j, 
simple contact, inhaling the breath or other effluvium. But not having pos- j 
itive and demonstrative proof of the correctness of the proposition, I would | 
advise no man to incur any risks, unnecessarily, founded on this assump- j 
tion, without first satisfying himself on the point. ' 

The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other substances, j 
and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of healthy feet. — ' 
Sheep therefore contract the disease from being driven over the pastures, j 
yarded on the straw, &c., where diseased sheep have been, perhaps even i 
days before. The matter would probably continue to inoculate until dried t 
up by the air and heat, or washed away by the rains. The stiff" upright ] 
stems of closely mown grass (as on meadows,) are almost as well calcu- j 
lated to receive the matter of diseased feet, and deposit it in the clefts of ' 
healthy ones, as any means which could be devised artificially. I do not ' 
consider it entirely safe to drive healthy sheep over roads, and especially [ 
into washing-yards or sheep-houses, where diseased sheep have been, until 
rain has fallen, or time has elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the 
moist bottom of a washing-yard, and particularly in houses or sheds, kept j 
from sun and wind, and rain, this matter might be preserved for some time \ 
in a condition to inoculate. i 

Fouls. — Sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle, but are j 
subject to it if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. It is i 
an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly resembles 
incipient hoof-ail, and produces lameness. But it produces no serious ! 
structural disorganization — disappears without treatment — is not con- j 
tagious — and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall, instead of the ■• 
dry, hot period of summer when the hoof-ail rages most. A little solution j 
of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of turpentine, either followed by a coat- 
ing of warm tar, promptly cures it. 

Goitre or Bronchocele. — I never have seen this classecJ among the ' 
diseases of sheep, but the " swelled neck " in lambs is, like the goitre, an : 
enlargement of the thyroid glands, and it is strikingly analogous to, if not ,\ 
identical with, that disease. It is congenital. The glands at birth are from j 
the size of a pigeon's to that of a hen's e^g — though more elongated and j 
flattened than an e^g in their form. The lamb is exceedingly feeble, | 
and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. Many even make no | 
effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. It is rare that one lives j 
— though three or four years since, a lamb in my flock having one of the j 
thyroid glands enlarged, grew up a large, healthy sheep. At a year old, 
when disposed of, the enlarged gland was of the size of a goose-egg. 

No inconsiderable number of lambs annually perish from this disease. — 
It does not appear to be an epizootic, though I think it more prevalent 
some seasons than others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or 
any other natural circumstances of a region, (as goitre is usually supposed 
to,) as it may not prevail in the same flock or on the same farm once in 
ten years. I never have been able to trace it to any particular kind of 
food. That when it does appear, it is induced by some common local or 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 271 

alimentary cause, 1 am induced to infer from the fact that its attacks are 
rarely isolated. When there are any instances of it in a flock, there are 
usually a number of them. I have lost lambs by it two seasons — 
from six to ten per cent, of the whole number. Francis Rotch, Esq. of 
Louisville, Otsego county, lost a much heavier per centage than this (my 
impression would now be nearly Jifti/ per cent.) of his choice South-Down 
lambs, a few years since. I am acquainted with various other instances 
where the loss has ranged from ten to twenty per centum. 

When congenital goitre has thus appeared among my lambs, the ewes 
have been in unusuaUy high condition. The same was true of Mr. Rotch's 
ewes, as he wrote me at the time. Whether this coexistence implies caus- 
ality, I do not pretend to decide. High condition in the ewe may be one 
■of the inducing causes. 

Treatment. — I know of no treatment which will reach the case. Indeed, 
the lamb is dying, almost, when born — and remedies are out of the ques- 
tion. Should one having the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be 
worth while to attempt reducing the enlargements of the glands. Perhaps 
keeping the breeding ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not high condi- 
tion, would be as effectual a preventive as any. 

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. 

PorsoN FROM Eating Laurel. — I often hear of this from our drovers, 
who take sheep in the spring to the Philadelphia and New-Jersey mar- 
kets, through Northern Pennsylvania, on the Old Red Sandstone formation 
of which the beautiful Kalmia angustifolia is abundant. The following 
description of the effects on the sheep of eating this plant, and the proper 
remedial treatment, though, I confess, not very satisfactory to me, I ex- 
tract entire from the " American Shepherd," * as I have no experience 
whatever in the premises, and no better account within my reach : 

" Sheep and calves will often, in the winter or spring of the year, eat greedily of the 
low Laurel (Kalmia angustifolia). The animal appears to be dull and stupid, swells a 
little, and is constantly gulping up a greenish fluid which it swallows down ; a part of it 
•will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its lips. The plant probably brings on a fermenta- 
tion in tlie stomach, and Nature endeavors to throw off the poison herb by retching or 
vomiting. 

Treatment. — In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be suffered to escape from the 
stomach, llie animal most generally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may be 
done in this manner : Take a stick of the size of your wrist and six inches long — place it in 
the animal's mouth — tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other 
end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up 
from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely." 

I have somewhere, I think, seen drenches of milk and castor-oil pre- 
scribed for sheep poisoned with laurel ; and I should, without farther 
knowledge of the subject, consider it treatment promising better results 
than the preceding. 

Sore Face. — Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort 
( Hypericum 2>erforatum J not unfrequently exhibit an irritation of the skin 
about the nose and face, which causes the hair to drop off from the parts. 
The irritation sometimes extends over the whole body, though no such 
case has fallen under my observation. Mr. Morrel says : t "If eaten in 
too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation of the bowels, and is 
frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes to adults." 

Treatment. — Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If 
there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, Mr. Morrell prescribes 

* American Shepherd, p. 361. t lb. 374. 



272 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

tav — " putting it into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick." j 
Abundance of salt is considejed, and probably truly, a preventive. I 
have a sheep pasture considerably infested with this difficultly extermi- \ 
nated weed, and I do not recollect an instance of a sheep exhibiting the 
effects of eating it, in several years. It is certain that my sheep have 
plenty of salt, whether this is the preventive or not. 

Sore Mouth. — The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in 
the winter, and swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The malady 
occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. No cases of 
it having been brought under my observation, I am unable to state 
whether, in accordance with the popular description, the lesions are con- 
lined to the lips. I should presume not. It is usually attributed to 
noxious weeds cut with the hay. 

Treatment. — Mr. Morrell states that he has had the disease in his flock, 
and has cured it immediately by smearing the diseased lips with tar.* 

Loss OF Cud. — The "loss of the cud" ranks as an important disease in \ 
the nosology of the " Cattle Doctor," and frequently calls forth all the skill | 
of tliat functionary to manufacture a new cud, which is placed in the j 
mouth of the animal as a substitute for the one which ivas lost! That i 
person must be little versed in the physiology of ruminants who needs to * 
be told that the accidental loss of one of the cuds, in the process of re- 
mastication, would be a matter of no sort of consequence. The sheep^ ,; 
as well as the cow, not unfrequently nearly or entirely ceases to ruminate, 
but this is the result, not the cause, of disease. It is diagnostic of all 
important diseases, and when observed, its warning should never go un- 
heeded. 

Hoove. — This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep, 

but if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will some- ii 

times ensue. It is a distention of the paunch by gas extricated from I 

the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in I 

larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions ', 
of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is prevented 
from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the 
head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordi- 
nary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult and imper- 
fect. Death soon supervenes. In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged 

driving will effect a cure. Where the animal appears swelled almost to j 

bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to at once open the 1 

paunch. At the most protuberant point of the swelling, on the left side, i 

a little below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point . 

and dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, car- '\ 

rying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. If no I 

measures ai-e taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well as the '■, 

collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen ' 

and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of the former i 

will escape into the cavity of the latter. However pei-fect the cure of ■ 

hoove, these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation. \ 

To prevent this, a canula or little tube should be inserted through both I 

orifices as soon as the puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, i 

alkalies have been sometimes successfully administered, which combine ^ 

* American Shepherd, p. 375. \ 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 273 

with the carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexi- 
ble probang — or, in default of it, a rattan or grape-vine — with a knob on 
the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and thus the gas permitted 
to escape. 

Obstruction of the Gullet, or " Choking." — After pouring a little 
oil in the throat, the obstructing substance can be frequently moved up or 
down by external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down 
with a flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knob or a little bag 
of flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or 
two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through 
the cloth, and protects the oesophagus from laceration. But little force 
must be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care 
and gentleness, or the oesophagus will be so far lacerated as to produce 
death, although the obstruction is removed. 

Fractures. — Of these Mr. Blacklock concisely says : 

" If there be uo wound of the soft parts, the bone being simply broken, the treatment is 
extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when swelling 
supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you can do no better 
than open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned 
to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms. Purgatives in 
such cases should never be neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel 
or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept 
steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always 
proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any 
extent, or the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain, and it will become a 
question whether it would not be better at once to convert the animal into mutton. " 



TREATMENT. 

Method of Administering Medicine into the Stomach. — The 
stomach into which we wish to administer medicines, is the fourth, or 
digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen are 
but slightly acted upon, excepting by doses of very improper magnitude. 
For the reasons given when the couise of the food through the stomachs 
was described, medicine to reach the fourth stomach should be given in a 
state as near approaching fluidity as may be. And even then it may be 
given in such a manner as to defeat our object. Mr. Youatt says : 

" If the animal forcibly gtilps fluids down, or if they are given hastily and bodily by the 
medical attendant, they will fall on the canal at the base of the gullet with considerable 
momentum, and force asunder the pillars and enter the rumen ; if they are drank more 
elowly, or administered gently, they will trickle down the throat and ghde over these 
pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach. " 

Method of Bleeding. — Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly 
practised, rarely extracts a quantity of blood suflScient to do any good 
where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a 
knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the 
eye, pressed down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of 
the face. Daubenton recommends bleeding from the angular or cheek 
vein, 

" in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is 

placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the 
bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the 
finder when the skin of the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the 

angular vein which is placed below The shepherd takes the sheep between his 

legs ; hia left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under the head, and grasps 

2M 



274 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

the uiuler jaw near to the hinder extremity, in order to press the angular veni, which, passes 
hi that place, to make it swell ; he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant 
from the eve and mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him, and also feels 
the angular vein swelled below this tubercle ; he then makes the incision from below 
upward, half a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle." 

When the vein is no longer pressed upon, the bleeding will ordinarily 
cease. If not, a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a 
lock of wool tied round them 

For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. 
The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the body 
confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of the 
wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein, 
and a lio-ature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is 
tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein will soon 
rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as described in the pre- 
ceding method. 

As once before remarked, the good effects of bleeding depend almost 
as much on the rajiifUty with which the blood is abstracted, as on the 
amount taken. This is especially true in acute disorders. Blacklock 
tersely reinarks : " Either bleed rapidhj or bleed not at all." The orifice 
in the vein, therefore, should be of soine length, and I need not inform 
the least experienced practitioner that it should be made lengthwise with 
the vein. A lancet is by far the best implement, and even a short-pointed 
penknife is preferable to the bunghng fleam. 

Another important rule in venesection is that, where indicated at all, it 
should always be resorted to as nearly as possible to the commencement of 
the malady. 

The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasure- 
racnt, but by constitutional effect — the lowering of the pulse, and indica- 
tions of weakness. In urgent cases as, for example, apoplexy or cerebral 
inflammation, it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or 

falls. 

The amount of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in 
the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth 
part of his weight, that of the ox at least one-twentieth, while the sheep, 
in ordinary condition, is one-tvventy-second. For this reason, we should 
be more cautious in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resorting 
to it. Otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. 
Many a sheep is destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring 
it and in disorders which did require it at the commencement, but of 
which the inflammatory stage has passed. 

The Place of Feeling the Pulse. — The number of pulsations can be 
determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side. The femoral 
artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and 
about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse 
can be most readily noted. The pulsations per minute in a healthy adult 
sheep are set down by Gasparin at 65, by Youatt at 70, and by Hurtrel 
d'Arboval at 75. My own observations accord most nearly with those of 
Gasparin. 

LIST OF MEDICINES EMPLOYED IN TREATING THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

Ale. — In cases of debility, unaccompanied with fever, a small amount 
of ale is sometimes found a good stimulant. It may be given to feeble 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 275 

sheep which have become unable to stand from having been too long cast 
— especially if they have laid on the snow, or on damp cold ground. It 
is sometimes given in addition to other medicine, in the place of the ordi- 
nary stimulants. 

Aloes — Are occasionally used as a purgative in sheep medicine by 
^farmers, but their use is justly condemned by all veterinarians. 
-Alum — Used as an astringent, but is inferior to many othei's. 

Antimony (The chloride or butyr of J — the best caustic to remove fun- 
gous granulations, dead muscular structures, etc., in the last and worst 
stage of hoof-ail — applied with a swab or feather. 

Arsenic — Employed in the proportion of half a pound to twelve gal- 
lons of water, to cure scab. An infusion of it is also used to kill ticks, &c. 
From its liability to adhere to vessels, or to come in contact with sub- 
stances which may be subsequently eaten, it is a dangerous remedy, and 
one which I would never have employed on my farm. 

Blue-Vitriol (Sulphate of CopjjerJ — Used internally as a strong tonic, 
but inferior to others. Dissolved in hot water, and applied to morbid 
sores, an astringent, alterative, and mild caustic, of the most admirable 
character. It is superior to all other applications in ordinary cases of 
hoof-ail. 

Camphor — Used with oil as an external stimulant on swellings, &c. 

Carraway-Seeds — Given favorably in doses of two or three drachms, 
as a stomachic with other medicines. 

Catechu — A valuable astringent, in doses of half a drachm. It is one 
of the ingredients of the celebrated " sheep's cordial," spoken of under 
the head of " diarrhea. " 

Chalk, Prepared, by its alkaline properties, neuti-alizes the acidity of 
the stomach, and thus checks diarrhea. It is a very valuable remedy in 
doses from half an ounce to an ounce, exhibited as directed under the 
head of " diarrhea. " 

Corrosive Sublimate (Bi-chloride of Mercury) — The most convenient 
form in which mercury can be exhibited internally. The proto-chloride, or 
calomel, from its great gravity, could not, with any certainty, be made to 
reach the fourth stomach. It would seem that mercury should be a use- 
ful remedy in several of the diseases of sheep. I have administered it 
only in the cases specified under the head of " malignant epizootic 
catarrh," and then apparently with some benefit. It would be well if a 
series of careful experiments could be instituted of its value in the appro- 
priate ovine diseases. It is very little used by veterinariaus, in this coun- 
try or Europe. A solution of corrosive sublimate is used for the destruc- 
tion of ticks, &c., and sometimes as a wash in the scab, but its use for 
these purposes is liable to the same objections with that of arsenic. 

Digitalis (Foxglove) — A sedative employed in most of the fever 
medicines of the English veterinarians. Dose, one scruple. 

Epsom Salts (Sulphate of Magnesia) — In doses from half an ounce 
to one, and in some few cases two ounces, the best purgative which can, 
in almost every disease, be administered to sheep. 

Gentian — Decidedly the best vegetable tonic in use. Dose, from one 
to two drachms. 

Ginger — A stomachic and tonic, given with almost every aperient, in 
doses of from half a draclixn to a drachm. It prevents griping. 

Iodine. — The hydriodate of potash in the proportion of one part to 



276 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

seven or eight parts, by weight, of lard, constitutes an ointment which is 
a powerful stimulant to the absorbent vessels, and therefore is an excellent 
application to glandular swellings, or to indurated tumors. It is a good 
application to the swelled udder (q. v. J in garget. 

Lard — A mild and gentle purgative in doses of two ounces. The basis 
of most ointments, and applied externally in almost every case as an 
emollient and lubricant in the place of oils. 

Lime, Carbonate of- — Used as a caustic to run flocks of sheep through, 
in the " hoof-ail," quern vide. 

Lime, Chloride of- — An excellent antiseptic and disinfectant, and a good 
application to foul ulcers. 

Linseed-Oil — A good purgative in two ounce doses. Preferable to 
Epsom salts in cases of great intestinal irritation, but not otherwise. 

Mercury. — The common mercurial ointment, rubbed down with five 
parts of lard, for severe cases, and seven parts for ordinary cases, ot scab, 
is an effectual cure, 

Muriatic Acid (Spirit of Salt) — Next to chloride of antimony, the best 
caustic in the worst stage of hoof-ail. 

Nitrate of Potash (Nitre or Saltpetre) — In doses one drachm, a 
cooling diuretic. 

Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic) — Superior to all other caustics, but 
too expensive for general use. For poisonous wounds, and particularly 
for the bite of a mad dog, it has no substitute. 

Nitric Acid (Aquafortis) — Sometimes used as a substitute for chloride 
of antimony, or muriatic acid, as a caustic in hoof-ail. Used by drovers, 
also, to harden the soles of feet which have become thin and tender by 
driving. It is touched over the sole with a feathei". 

Opium — An invaluable sedative, and anti-spasmodic, and is employed in 
nearly all prescriptions for diarrhea and dysentary, and also in colic drinks. 
It is an important part of the " sheeps cordial." It is commonly used in 
the form of a tincture, or laudanum. Dose, one drachm. 

Pepper, Black — Given in small quantities in milk, to new-born lambs, 
when chilled. 

Pimento (Allspice) — A substitute for ginger, in the same doses, but not 
so valuable. 

Rhubarb — Unites the properties of a cathartic and subsequent astrin- 
gent. In small doses it is a tonic and stomachic, invigorating the diges- 
tion. When the bov.'els are relaxed and torpid, and the stomach in a 
feeble state, it would seem the most appropriate purgative, when a purga- 
tive is indicated. 

Salt (Muriate of Soda) — An ounce constitutes a purgative ; in small 
quantities a tonic and stomachic. The necessity of keeping sheep freely 
supplied with salt has been referred to under Summer and Winter Man- 
agement. 

Sulphate of Iron ( Copjyeras, or Green Vitriol) — Used in washes for 
the hoof-ail, but superseded by sulphate of copper. Internally, a tonic. 

Sulphur, Flower of — In doses of from one to two ounces, a good 
aperient. It is the basis of various ointments. 

Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol) — A powerful caustic, used as a sub- 
stitute for the acids already alluded to, in the worst stage of hoof-ail. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRy IN THE SOUTH. 277 

Spirit of Tar — Destroys maggots, and repels the attack of flies. Flies 
will not approach a part over which it has been smeared. 

Tar — Is a valuable application to the feet, nose, back of the horns, &c., 
under the various circumstances detailed in Summer Management, and in 
the treatment of grub in the head, hoof-ail, &c. 

Tobacco — An infusion of it destroys vex'min, and also is a ci^re for 
scab, quern vide. 

Turpentine, Spirits of- — Prevents the attack of flies, and drives away 
maggots. It is a useful application to old sores, wounds, &c. 

Verdigris (Acetate of Copper) — Used in hoof-ail ; but adds nothing, I 
think, to the good effects of the sulphate of copper. 

Zinc, Carbonate of — Mixed with lard, constitutes a valuable emollient 
and healing ointment. It is mixed in the proportion of one part of the 
carbonate, by weight, to eight of the lard. 



I 



278 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



LETTER XVII. 

SHEEPDOGS, WOOL DEPOTS, &c. 

The estimation in which dogs have been held by different nations, &c..-The Sheep-Dog — Buffbn's 
description of him.. .The t-panish Sheep-Pog — Origin — Introduction into the United States^ Value — 
Arrogante — his history. . .The Hungarian Sheep-Dog — Mr. Paget's description of— probable origin — I he 
Mexican Sheep-Dog — Mr. Lyman's description of — Mr. Kendall's. . .South American sheep-Dogs — Dar- 
win's description of. ..The English Sheep-Dog — Mr. Ciates's description of. ..Mr. Colman's.. .'I he Scotch 
Hheep-Dog— Mr. Hogg's account of.. Mr. Peters's. ..Necessity of accustoming Sheep to a dog. ..Wool 
Depots — ">ir. Blanchard's account of their origin — Letter from Mr. Heters, describing their object, methods 
of doing; business, and advantases — Utility of these depots— their especial utility to the South... A correc- 
tion — Mr. Kuliiu. ..Note in relation to Australia— Statistics of its Wool Trade brought down to 1846. 

Dear Sir : — In all ages of the world' and among nearly all nations, 
savage and civilized,* the dog has been the friend and cherished com- 
panion of man. The Egyptians placed him among their gods. The 
Greeks held him in the highest estimation. His figure mingles with that 
of warriors and demi-gods on their friezes ; and Argus, the dog of 
Ulysses, lives as immortal in the Odyssey, [vide Book XVII., 'p. 344^50 400) 
as his sagacious master, or the faithful Penelope. Alexander the Great 
founded a city in honor of a dog ! The Romans treated him with similar 
respect. His skin covered the statues of the sacred Lares; his figure, as 
the emblem of care and vigilance, stood at the feet of these household 
gods — venerated and loved as the tutelary manes of departed ancestors. 
Horace in his Ode to Cassius Severus [Book V., Ode VI.,) compares him- 
self to the Molossian, or the tawny Spaitan dog, which defends the flocks, 
and with ears erect, pursues the wild beast through the deep snows. Virgil, 
in the delightful Georgics, admonishes the Roman shepherds not to neglect 
the care of their dogs : 

" Nee tibi cura canum fuerit postrema : sed unit 
Veloces Spartai catulos, acremqiie Molossum, 
Pasce sero pingui : nunquam, custodibus illis, 
Nocturnum stahulis furem, incursusque hiporum, 
Aut impacatos si tergo horrebis Iberos." 

[Georg. Liber III., commencing at line 404. 

Thus translated by Sotheby : 

Nor slight thy dogs ; on whey the mastiffs feed, 
Molossian race, and hounds of Spartan breed; 
Beneath their care, nor wolves, nor thieves by night. 
Nor wild Iberian shall thy fear excite. 

These " Spartan hounds, " I may remark, par parenthesis, are the ones 
spoken of by Shakspeare, in that glorious description of the music of a 
pack in full cry, and of the points of a hound, in Midsummer-Nighf s 
Dream : 

Hippolita. — I was with Hercules, and Cadmus, once. 

When in a wood of Crete they bayed the bear 
With hounds of Sparta : never did I hear 
Such gallant chiding ; for, besides the groves, 
The skies, the fountains, every region near 
Seemed all one mutual cry : I never heard 
So musical a discord, such sweet thunder. 

TVieseiiS. — My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind. 

So tlewed, so sanded ; and their heads are hung 
With ears that sweep away the morning dew ; 
Crook-kneed, and dew-lapped, like Thessalian bulls; 
Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells, 
Each under each. A cry more tunable 
Was never hallo'd to, nor cheered with horn. 
In Crete, in Sparta, nor in Thessaly. 

* The only exceptions which now occur to me are the Jews, the Hindoos, and the Mahommedan uatioiiB 
and tribes. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 279 



Arrian, Pliny, Oppian, ^lian, and a host of other writers of the Empire, 
descant ou the praises of the dog, or give anecdotes of his courage, 
strength, and fideHty. 

In the chivah-ic ages, he was the companion of knights and princes — the 
soul of the manly field-sports of those times. Even prelates followed him 
to the chase. The abbots of St. Hubert hred a celebrated race of hounds. 
St. Hubert himself, St. Eustace, and many others on the canonized calen- 
dar, were keen hunters. " Wherevpon, " says the author of the " Noble 
Art of Venerie," &c., published in 1611, "we may conceive that [by the 
grace of God) all good huntsmen shall follow them into Paradise ! " Truly, 
a consoling religious sequitur ! 

Scott, in his beautifully descriptive poetry, and still more poetical prose, 
has given us a whole picture gallery of dogs, from the Middle Ages down. 
The few which start up first in memory, (in viy memory,) because, proba- 
bly, linked with the most interesting associations, are Fangs — a genuine 
Saxon — gaunt and unkempt, but stanch as his master, Gurth, the son of 
Beowulph ; the noble hound of Sir Kenneth ; the " two dogs of black 
Saint Hubei-t's breed," that with Fitz-James pursued their quarry into the 
wild pass of the Trosachs ; the faithful little terrier, which, 

" on the dark brow of the mighty Hellvellyn, 

The much-loved remmna of her masfer defended, 
And chased the hill fox and the raven away ; " 

and last, not least. Hector Mclntyre's bitch Juno, which stole the butter, 
and broke the "lachramatory from Clochmaben," of the glorious old 
Antiquary. They stand out on the canvas like Landseer's pictures. We 
pause tu hear them harh ! It has often occurred to me that Scott omitted 
a fine opportunity, indeed, made a hiatus vale dcf.endns, in not introducing 
one or more of the Alpine spaniels — or dogs of Mount St. Bernard — into 
his Anne of Geierstein, providing it could be done, (on which point I am 
uninstructed,) without a violent anachronism. When Arthur clung dizzy 
and stupefied to the trunk of the tree which hung over the beetling verge 
of the precipice — when the cry of the Swiss maiden announced approach- 
ing succor, should it not have had for its accompaniment the baying of 
one of those great dogs of the Alps — the deep and far-heard reverbera- 
tions of which so often calls help to the perishing traveler, for miles, 
through the howling storm 1 Should not the dog of Donnerhugel, on the 
night-watch of Graffs-lust, have been of the same breed — huge, shaggy, and 
daring as himself? The portrait of Barry, a Bernardine dog which saved 
the lives of forty persons, and finally perished in an avalanche in guid- 
ing some travelers to St. Pierre, is to be found in every print-shop. It 
represents him carrying a child on his shoulders — clinging by his shaggy 
hair, — which he found in the Glacier of Balsore, and rescued from 
approaching death. 

Scott is not the only modem poet who has admired and sung the praises 
of the dog. And I do not recollect the instance of one, who has mentioned 
him, that is, the well-hred dog, who has not praised him, except Byron 
in these moody lines : 

" Perchance my dog will whine in vain. 

Till fed by stranger hands ; 
But long ere I corae back again 
Would tear me where he stands. " 

In his epitaph on his Newfoundland dog, the noble poet retracted this 
ungenerous libel, and pays one of the warmest tributes to the fideHty of 
the dog, on record. 

Volumes of anecdotes of canine sagacity might be easily compiled. 



280 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



Reasoning powers the dog undoubtedly possesses, quite on a par with 
ordinary humanity, if we may believe scoies of these writers. But it is 
probable that the gcandsires of some of them " drew good lo7ig-bouis at 
Hastino-s," and they, like Hubert, may lay claim to a hereditary knowledge 
of the weapon. It is to be feared that dog-stories will soon be sunk to a 
par w'y^ jisli-stories ! The truth is, the dog knows enough, and there are 
authenticated cases enough of his wonderful sagacity, without having an 
air of discredit thrown over the whole of them, by fanciful exaggera- 
tions. 

The comparative intelligence, and the comparative value to man, of the 
different species of the dog, would be very differently estimated by those 
who have been placed in situations to be particularly benefited by the 
peculiar instincts of this race or that. Nearly every species has some 
traits, some uses, where it is unequaled by the others; and each in its 
place is valuable. I do not, however, mean these remarks, or any others 
which I have made in favor of the dog, to apply to the mongrel tribe of 
curs. That there have been valuable individuals from this disreputable 
stock, all must admit ; but the miserable, cowardly and thievish character 
of the mass of them has been proverbial in all time. Far too many of 
them are kept by our farmers in the place of noble and serviceable animals 
and multitudes of them, owned by idlers and vagabonds, infest the country 
and do ten times more mischief to our flocks than diseases and beasts of 

pi'ey- 

The Sheep-Dog. — Buffon thus eloquently describes the sheep-dog,* and 
compares his sagacity and value to man, with other racest : 

" This animal, faithful to Man, will always preserve a portion of his empire and a degrep 
of superiority overother beings. He reigns at the head of his flock, and makes himself bettei 
understood than the voice of the shepherd. Safety, order, and discipline are the fruits ol 
his vigilance and animal. They are a people submitted to his management, whom he con- 
ducts and protects, and against whom he never applies force but for the pi-eservation of good 
order. . . . Jf we consider that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness, and his wild 
and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others ; that he has a decided character in 
which education has comparatively little share ; that he is the only animal born perfectly 
trained ibr the service of others ; that, guided by natural powers alone, he applies himself to 
the care of our flocks, a duty which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidel- 
ity ; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence, which is a part and portion ot 
himself; that his .lagacity astoni.><hes at the same time that it gives repose to his master, 
while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to which they 
are destined ; if vve reflect on these facts, we shall be confirmed in the opinion that the 
Bhepberd's dog is the true dog of Nature, the stock and model of the whole species." 

I shall call attention to but a few of the most distinguished varieties of 
the sheep-dog. 

The Spanish Sheep-T")og. — Of the origin of this celebrated race, I do 
not recollect to have seen anything. I have observed them several times 
Bpoken of, latterly, in newspapers and agricultural publications, as the 
same variety with the Alpine Spaniel, or Bernardine dog. This, I think, 
must be an error, though there may be a general resemblance between 
the two Species. Arrogante, on the next page, though a dog of pro- 
digious power, decidedly lacks the massive proportions, both in body 
and limbs, of several Bernardine dogs, which I have seen, of unquestiona- 



* I stated near the cloie of Letter V. that there are no shepherd dopra large and powerful enough to en- 
counter and kill wolves and vajjrant does, excfpt the preat Sheep.dog of .Spain, and that he is so ferocious 
thit he iniirht frequently brinii; his owner into difficulty, and even endanger human life. — I was mistaken. 
Crosses l)etween this and other species seems to have mitigated the ferocity of the .Spanish dog, and Etill 
left it within the power of two to overcome a wolf, as will appear from what follows. 

t Butt'ou's Natural History, vol. v., pp. 306, 318. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



281 



ble lineage. The temper and disposition of the two species, too, seems to 
me to be essentially different. 

Mr. Trimmer, and various other foreign writers, speak in warm terms 
of the value of the Spanish sheep-dog, for guarding the migratory flocks 
of that country from the attacks of wolves — staying behind to protect fee- 
ble and lagging sheep, &c. In the Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Agricul- 
tural Society, there is a commiuiication from the well-known John Hare 
Powell, Esq., of Philadelphia, from which the following are extracts : — 

" The first importations of Merino sheep were accompanied by some of the larpe and 
powerful dogs of Spiiin, possessing all the valuable characteristics of the English shepherd's 

dog, with sagacity, fidelity and strength peculiar to themselves Their ferocity, when 

aroused by any intruder, their attachment to their own flock, and devotion to their master 
would, in the uncultivated parts of America, make them an acquisition of infinite value, by 
affording a defence against wolves, which they readily kill, and vagrant cur dogs, by which 
our flocks are often destroyed. The force of their instinctive attachment to sheep, and their 
resolution in attacking every dog which passes near to their charge, have been forcibly 
evinced upon my farm." 

Fig. 71. 




ARROGANTE — A SPANISH SHEEP-DOG. 

Arrogante, whose portrait is above given with admirable fidelity, was 
imported from Spain with a flock of Merinos, a number of years since, by 
a gentleman residing near Bristol, England. His subsequent owner, 
Francis Rotch, Esq., of this State, thus describes him in a letter to me, 
which, though not intended for publication, I will venture to make a few 
extracts from : 

" I have, as you desired, made you a sketch of the Spanish sheep-dog Arrogante, and a 
villainous looking rascal he is. A worse countenance I hardly ever saw on a dog ! His 
small blood-shot eyes, set close together, give him that sinister, wolfish look, which is most 
unattractive ; but his countenance is indicative of his character. There was nothing affec- 
tionate or joyous about him. He never forgave an injury or an insult : oSend him. and it 
Was for life. I have often been struck with his resemblance to his nation. He was proud 
and reserved in the extreme, but not quarrelsome. Every little cur would fly oiJt at him, 
as at some strange animal ; and I have seen them fasten for a moment on his heavy, bushy tail, 
and yet he would stride on, never breaking his long, ' loping,' shambling trot. Ouce I saw him 

2N 



282 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

tm-ii. and the retribution was awful ! It was upon a large, powerfnl mastift' we kept as a 
ni^lit-guard in the Bank. He then put forth his strength, which proved tremendous ! His 
coat hutig about him in thick, louse, matted fiilds, dirty and uncared-for, — so that I presume 
a d(jg never got hold of anything about him deeper than his thick, tough skin, which was 
twice too large to fit him anywhere, and especially around the neck and shoulders. The 
only other evidence of his uncommon strength which I had observed, was the perfect ease 
with which he threw himself over a high wall or paling, which often drew my attention, 
because he seemed to me wanting in that particular physical development which we are 
accustomed to consider as necessary to nuiscular power. He was flat-chested, and flat- 
eided, with a somewhat long back and narrow loin. (My drawing foreshortens his length.) 
His neck, forearm and thigh certainly indicated strength. If the Spanish wolf and the dog 
ever cohabit, he most assuredly hnd in him such a cross ; the very etfluvia of the animal be- 
trayed it. In all in which he differed from the beautiful Spanish shepherd-dog, he was 
wolfish both iu form and habits.* Bat, though no parlor beauty, Arrogaiite was unquestion- 
ably a dog of immense value to the moiiutain-shepherd. Several times, he had met the 
large wolf of the Appenines, and widiout aid slain his antagonist. The shepherds who bred 
bira said it was an affair of no doubtful issue, wheu he encountered a wolf single-handed. 
His liistory, after reaching England, you know." 

Some portions of that history I cannot resist the temptation of narrating, 
as ilhistrative of the character of this interesting breed, and commemora- 
tive of the virtues of the stern, but honest and dauntless Arrogante. If 
his courage was tinctured with ferocity, and sometimes instigated by a 
revenge, going a little beyond the canon which pet mils bad debts to be 
paid in kind, he did everything opcnlii ! He made no sneakish, cur-like 
attacks, on the heels of his foe. By him, as by Robin Hood and his merry 
men — commemorated by Drayton — 

" Who struck below the kri' e [was] not counted then a man ;" 

and his spring was always at the throat of his quarry. But he made not 
that deadly spring until he gave " warning fair and true," and never with- 
out provocation.t 

Soon after Arrogante's arrival in England, a ewe under his charge 
chanced to get cast in a ditch, during the temporary absence of the Span- 
ish shepherd who had accompanied the flock and dog at their importation. 
An English shepherd, in a spirit of vaunting, insisted on relieving the fal- 
len sheep, in preference to having the absent shepherd called, though 
warned by his coinpanions to desist. The stern stranger dog met him at 
the gate and also warned him with sullen growls, growing more menacing 
as he approached the sheep. The shepherd was a powerful and bold man, 
and felt that it was too late now to retract with credit. On reaching the 
sheep, he bent carefully forward, with his eyes on the dog, which instantly 
made a spring at his throat. A quick forward movement of his arm saved 
his throat, but the arm was so dreadfully lacerated that immediate am- 
putation became necessary. To save the dog, which had but done his 
duty, as he had been taught it, from the popular excitement, he was ship- 
ped in a vessel which sailed that very afternoon, from Bristol for America. 
He was sent to Francis Rotch, Esq., then a resident of New-Bedford. 

For a long time Arrogante would not pay the least attention to his new 
master ; the voice of the latter would scarcely arrest him for a moment. 
After attempting in vain, for several weeks, to obtain some recognition of | 
mastership from him, Mr. Rotch chained him securely to a tree, punished 
him severely, and then, with not a few misgivings, released him. But he 
submitted, for he well knew that the punishment came from his master, 
and afterward gave a cold, haughty obedience to all required of him. 

* I never have supposed, from the several conversations which I have had with Mr. Rotch on the sub- 
ject, that Arrogante was anythintr less than a thorough-bred Spanish shepherd-dos.'. Mr. Rotch here means 
that he was an ill-favored individual of the family— and he thinks that this viay be owing to a bar-sinister 
on his escutcheon, left there by some wolfish gallant. His temper was even less ferocious than Mr. Powell 
describes that of Us Spanish dogs. 

t Was there anything wulf-like in all of this ? ^ 



SHEEP HUSBANDUY IN THE SOUTH. 283 

' Stupid and apparently sleeping much of the day, nothing, however, 
escaped his observation, or was subsequently erased from his memory. 11 
led round a building, or enclosure, or even an open space, at night-fall, in 
a manner to evince particular design, during the entire night like a senti- 
nel he traversed some part of the guarded ring, permitting neither man nor 
beast to pass in or out from it. 

Arrogante was a " temperance man," of thestraightest sect — an out-and- 
out teetotcder — and if tolerant of deviations from his creed, he could bear 
none, from the sobriety of his practice. Never would he confess acquain- 
tance with a drunken man — though the hand of that man fed him. The 
bailiff, who usually fed Arrogante, used occasionally to come home late in 
the evening a little "j9^M,"and never could he in this condition get his foot 
on the premises ! The old man has plead guilty to more than one night's 
lodgings on the ground, in consequence of Arrogante's temperance scru- 
ples. 

On one occasion a couple of sailors, to take advantage of the tide, came 
unexpectedly, and without giving any notice, on the farm, at 3 A. M., to 
take away some potatoes they had purchased. Arrogante thought it 
was not so " nominated in the bond ;" he forced them to clamber into an 
empty cart, and there he kept them until morning. They tried the expe- 
riment of putting a leg over the side once or twice, but were admonished 
in too unequivocal a manner to keep quiet, to need any farther hints. 
They lost the tide, and were in great tribulation, but, like honest fellows, 
confessed the fault was their own. 

I might, did limits allow, recount many more anecdotes displaying the 
iron determination and fixed precision with which this noble dog obeyed 
his instructions in guarding sheep or other property committed to his 
charge. He was a decided " strict constructionist," swerving not from the 
letter of his commission, and woe to him who attempted to countervail the 
tenor of that commission ! 

Drunkenness was destined to prove as fatal as it was detestable, to Arro- 
gante. A gentleman occupied a cottage orne by the sea-side, the lane to 
which ran along the farm, and near the stable which Arrogante made his 
head-quarters, when not on particular duty. The gentleman waa reg- 
ularly introduced to him, and warned against ever pi-ovoking him. Re- 
turning him home late one Saturday evening on horseback, from a conviv- 
ial meeting, as he galloped through the lane, he met the dog, and v/an- 
tonly struck him or struck at him with a hunting-whip. He was a large 
man, and rode a tall, powerful horse, and being under speed, he escaped 
before the astonished dog recovered from his surprise. But the insulted 
blood of Castile rushed in boiling currents through the veins of the mad- 
dened Arrogante. He felt, like his countryman De Lerma, in Epes Sar- 
gent's tragedy of Velasco — 

" Struck like a meniHl ! buffeted ! degTatled ! 
Spare not my life, if mercy thou would show, 
Tiiou givest me back only what thou hast made 
A burden, a disgrace, a misery !" 

But AiToo-ante felt both the power and will to avenge himself, and he 
resolved on a bloody retribution. 

The next morning the gentleman was on his way to church, mounted as 
before. The dog heard and knew the tread of his horse, rose from his lair 
in the stable, walked to the road-side, and stood grimly awaiting his in- 
surer. When the latter had approached within a few yards, Arrogante, 
like a missile projected from a catapult, met him in the air, in a deadly 
sprino- at his throat. The sudden jump and swerve of the frightened and 



284 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

very active horse, saved the rider's throat and his life — hut so narrowly- 
had he escaped, that he felt the gnashing teeth of the frenzied brute 
scrape down his dress, where they came in contact with and closed upon 
his watch, tearing it away with the adjacent clothing. The horseman fled 
for his life, while the baftled dog vented his rage on the gold watch 
which he had captured, by chewing it into atoms ! The cause of this ter- 
rible onset not being disclosed at the time, Mr. R., though convinced from 
the character of the dog that he had not been the aggressor, felt constrain- 
ed to give orders to have him shot. 

The Hungarian Sheep-Dog. — The following description of the Hunga- 
rian Sheep-Dog, occurs in Paget's " Hungaiy and Transylvania :"* 

" It would be unjust to quit the subject of the Puszta Shepherd without making due and 
honorable mention of his constant companion and friend, tlie juhdsz-hiitya — the Hungarian 
shepherd dog. The shepherd dog is commonly white, sometimes inclined to a reddish 
brown, and about the size of our Newfoundland dog. His sharp nose, short erect ears, 
shaggy coat, and bushy tail give him much the appearance of a ^volf; indeed, so great is the 
resemblance, ihat I have known a Hungirian gentleman mistake a wolf for one of his own 
dogs. Except to their masters, they are so savage that it is unsafe i()r a stranger to enter the 
court-yard of a Hungarian cottage, without arms. I speak from experience ; for as I was walk- 
ing through the yard of a post-house, where some of these dogs were lying about, apparently 
asleep, one of them crept after me, and inflicted a severe wound on my leg, of which I still 
bear the marks. Before I could turn round, the dog was already far otf ; for, like the wolf, 
they bite by snapping, but never hang to the object like the bull-dog or mastiff". Their saga- 
city in driving and guarding the sheep and cattle, and their courage in protecting them from 
wolves and robbers, are highly praised ; and the she|>lierd is so well aware of the value of a 
good one, that it is difficult to induce him to part with it." 

I have little doubt that the Hungarian dogs above described are the 
descendants of the Spanish ones, introduced into Hungary with the Meri- 
no sheep, though possibly they may be somewhat crossed by interbreeding 
with the dogs of the country. 

The Mexican Sheep-Dog. — The following acccount of these noble dogs 
appears as a communication from Mr. J. H. Lyman, in the third volume of 
the American Agriculturist :t 

" Although Mr. Kendall and some other writers have described this wonderful animal as 
a cross of the Newfoundland dog, such, I think, cannot be the fact; on the contrary, I have 
no doubt he is a genuine descendant of the Alpine mastiff, or more properly, Spanish shep- 
herd dog introduced by them at the time of the Conquest. He is only to be found in the 
sheep-raising districts of New Mexico. The other Mexican dogs, which number more than 
a thousand to one of these noble animals, are the results of a cross of everything under the 
Bun having any affitiity to the canine race, and even of a still nobler class of animals if Mexi- 
can stories are to be credited. It is believed in Mexico, that the countless mongrels of that 
country owe their origin to the assistance of the various kinds of wolves, mountain cats, 
lynxes, and to almost if not every class of four-footed carnivorous animals. Be this as it may, 
those who have not seen them can believe as much as they like ; but eye-witnesses can assert, 
that there never was a country blessed with a greater and more abundant variety of misera- 
rable, snarling, cowardly packs, than the mongrel dogs of Mexico. That country of a surety 
would be the plague-spot of this beautiful world, were it not for the redeeming character of 
the truly noble sliepherd dog, endowed as it is with almost human intellect. I have often 
thought, when observing the sagacity of this animal, that if very many of the human race 
possessed one half of the power of inductive reasoning which seems to be the gift of this 
animal, that it would be far better for themselves and for their fellow-creatures. 

The peculiar education of these dogs is one of the most important and interesting steps 
pursued by the shepherd. His method is to select from a multitude of pups a few of the 
healthiest and finest-looking, and to put them to a sucking ewe, first depriving her of her 
own lamb. By force, as well as from a natural desire she has to be relieved of the con- 
tents of her udder, she soon learns to look upon the little interlopers with all the affection 
she would manifest for her own natural ofi'spriug. For the first few days the pups are kept 
in the hut, the ewe suckling them moruuig and evening only ; but gi'adually, as she be- 



* Hungary and Traneylvania, by John Paget. Esq., vol. ii., p. 18, et supra. t Page 241. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 285 

comes accustomed to their siglit, she is allowed to run in a small enclosure with them until 
she becomes so perfectly f'amiiicir with their appearance as to take the entiie charge of 
them. After this they are folded with the whole Hock for a fortnight or so, they then ruu 
about during the day with the flock, which after a while becomes so accustomed to them, as 
to be able to distinguish them from other dogs — even from those of the same litter which 
have not been nursed among them. The shepherds usually allow the slut to keep one of 
a lifter for her own particular benefit ; the balance are generally destroyed. 

After the pups are weaned, they never leave the particular drove among which they havo 
been reared. Not even the voice of their master can entice them beyond sight of the flock ; 
neither hunger or thirst can do it. I have been credibly informed of an instance where a 
single dog having charge of a small flock of sheep, was allowed to wander with them about 
the mountains, while the shepherd returned to his village for a few days, having perfect 
confidence in the ability of his dog to look after the flock during his absence, but with a 
sti-ange want of foresight as to the provision of the dog for his food. Upon his return to the 
flock, he found it several miles from where left, but on the road leading to the village, and 
the poor faithful animal in the agonies of death, dying of slarvation, even in the midst of 
plenty; yetlhe flock had not been harmed by him. A reciprocal affection exists between 
them" which may put to blush many of the hiunan family. The poor dog recognized 
them only as brothers and dearly loved fiiends; he was ready at all times to lay down 
his life for them ; to attack not only wolves and mountain cats, with the confidence of vic- 
tory, but even the bear, when there could be no hope. Ot late years, when the shepherds 
of New Mexico have suffered so much from Indian marauders, instances have frequently 
occurred where the dog has not hesitated to attack his human foes, and although transfix- 
ed with arrows, his indomitable courage and faithfulness have been such as to comjiel his 
assailants to piu him to the earth with spears, and hold him there until dispatched with 
stones. 

In the above instance the starving dog could have helped himself to one of his little bro- 
ther lambs, or coidd have deserted the sheep, and very soon have reached the settlements 
where there was food for him. But faithful even unto death, he would neither leave nor 
molest them, but followed the promptings of his instujct to lead into the settlement; their 
unconsciousness of his wants and slow motions in traveling were too much for his exhaust- 
ing strength. 

These shepherds are very nomadic in character. They are constatitly moving about, 
their camp equipage consisting merely of a kettle and a bag of meal ; their lodges are made 
in a few minutes, of branches, &c., thrown against cross-sticks. They very seldom go out 
in the day-time with their flocks, intrusting th. m entirely with their dogs, which faithfully 
return them at night, never permitting any stragglers behind or lost. Sometimes difl'erent 
flocks are brought into the same neighborhood owing to scarcity of grass, when the wonder- 
ful instincts of the shepherds' dogs are most beautifully displayed; and to my asto'iishment, 
who have been an eye-witness of such scenes, if two flocks approach within a few yards of 
each other, their respective propiietors will place themselves in the 8j)ace between them, 
and as is very naturally the case, if any adventurous sheep should endeavor to cross over to 
visit her neighbors, her dog protector kindly but firmly leads her back and it sometimes 
happens, if many make a rush and succeed in joining the other flock, the dogs under whose 
charge they are, go over and bring them all out, but, strange to say, under such circumstances 
they are never opposed by the other dogs. They approach the strange sheep only to prevent 
their own from leaving the flock, though they offer no assistance in expelling the other sheep. 
But they never permit sheep not under canine protection, nor clogs not in charge of sheep, 
to approach them. Even the same dogs which are so freely permitted to enter their flocks 
in search of their own, are driven away with ignonimy if they presume to approach them 
without that laudable object in view. 

Many anecdotes could be related of the wonderfid instinct of these dogs. I very much 
doubt if there are shepherd dogs in any other part of the world except Spain, equal to those 
of New-Mexico in value. The famed Scotch and EngHsh dogs sink into insignificance by 
the side of them. Their superiority may be owing to the peculiar mode of rearing them, 
btxt they are certainly very noble animals, naturally of large size, and highly deserving to be 
introduced into the United Stales. A pair of them will easily kill a wulf, and Hocks under 
their care need not fear any common enemy to be found in our country. 

J. H. Lyman." 

Mr. Kendall* speaks of meeting, on the Grand Prairie, 

— a flock numbering seventeen thousand, which immense herd was guarded by a very few 
men, assisted by a large number of noble dogs, which appeared gifted with tlie faculty of 
keeping them together. There was no running about; no barking or biting in their system 
of tactics; or the contrary, they were continually walking up and down, like faithful senti- 
nels, on the outer side of the flock, and should any sheep chance to stray from its fellows, 
the dog on duty at that particular post, would walk gently up, take him carefully by the ear, 

* Vol. I., p. 268. 



286 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. ^ 

and lead him back to the flock. Not the least fear did the sheep manifest at the appuoach il 
of these dogs, and there was no occasion for it. \ 

These noble animals seem, according to these and various other corre- ' 
sponding accounts I have seen of them, to leave nothing to desire in the vvray 
of a sheep-dog, either for guarding or managing flocks. They would be in- I 
valuable in our Southern States, to protect the flocks from the cur-dogs \ 
which so often attack them, and from the occasional wolves, I hope j 
efforts will be made to introduce them into our country, and then they 
should be bred in the utmost purity. 

South American Sheep-Dog. — Similar to the preceding in character ' 
and habits, are the sheep-dogs to be found in various parts of South Amer- 
ica. They, too, are undoubtedly an offshoot from the Spanish stem. 
The following interesting account of them is from Darwin's Journal : 

" While staying at this estancia (in Banda Oriental), I was amused with what I saw and 
heard of the shepherd dogs of the conntry. When riding, it is a common thing to meet a 1 
large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs, at the distance of some miles from any | 
house or man. I often wondered how so firm a friendship had been established. The ' 
method of education consists in separating the pnppy, when very young, from the bitch, 
and in accustoming it to its ftiture companions. A ewe is held three or four times a day 
for the litde thing to snck, and a nest of wool is made for it in the sheep-pen. — At no time '■ 
is it allowed to associate with other dogs, or with the children of the family. The puppy, 
moreover, is generally casti-ated ; so that when grown up, it can scarcely have any feelings ' 
in common with the rest of its kind. From this education it has no wish to leave the flock, 
and pist as another dog will defend its master, man, so will these the sheep. It is amusing ] 
to observe, when approaching a flock, how the dog immediately advances barking — and the 
sheep all close in his rear as if round the oldest ram. These dogs are also easily taught to 
bring home the flock at a certain time in the evening. Their most troublesome fault when • 
young is their desire of playing with the sheep, for in their play, they sometimes gallop their 
poor subjects most unmercifully. The shepherd dog comes to the house every day for ; 
some meat, and immediately it is ^ven to him he skulks away as if ashamed of himself. 
On these occasions the house dogs are very tyrannical, and the least of them will attack 
and ])ursue the stranger. The minute, however, tlie latter has reached the flock, he turns 
round and begins to bark, and then all the house dogs take very quickly to their 
heels. In a similar manner a whole pack of hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever (and I was 
told by some, never;, venture to attack a flock guarded even by one of these faithful shepherds. 
The whole account appears to me a curious instance of the pliability of the affections of the 
do<^ race ; and yet, whether wild, or however educated, with a mutual feeling of respect and 
fear for those that are fulfilling then- instinct of association. For we can understand on no ' 
principle the wild dogs being driven away by the single one with its flock, except that they ' 
consider, from some confused notion, that tlie one thus associated gains power, as if in com- • 
pany with its own kind. F. Cuvier has observed that all animals which enter into domes- ■! 
tication consider Man as a member of their society, and thus they fulfil their instinct of asso- , 
elation. In the above case the shepherd dogs rank the sheep as their brethren ; and the | 
wild dogs, though knowing that the individual sheep are not dogs, but are good to eat, yet 
partly consent to this view, when seeing them in a flock, with a shepherd dog at their 1 
head." j 

Other large races of Sheep-Dogs. — There are one or two fine species I 
in France, as those of Brie, and Auvergne. In a letter from (x. W. ^ 
Lafayette, to John S. Skinner, Esq., the latter are pronounced equal to !■ 
the Spanish dogs.* Large powerful races, everywhere possessing the i 
same general characteristics, are to be found in almost every country il 
excepting our own, where the fine-wooled breeds of sheep have been ex- ] 
tensively introduced. With a commerce extending to all the maritime 
nations of the world, singular it is that so little pains have been taken to 

introduce them. 

J 

The English Sheep-Dog. — The following are portraits of a Drover's dog, ] 



• See Farmers' Library, Vol. i., p. 465. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 



287 



and a Scotch Colley slut, imported by B. Gates, of Gap Grove, Lee Co 
llllinois. They are taken from The Farmers' Library.* 

Fig. 72. 








drover's dog, and colley slut. 

The Drover's dog, or English sheep-dog, or Butcher's dog — for by aui 
of these names is he known — is considerably smaller than the species or 
families heretofore described, but he is a larger and more powerful dog 
than the Colley. Mr. Gates, in the communication accompanying the 
portraits, remarks : 

" Much has already been written on the intelligence of the Scotch Colley. My opinion is 
that the En-^lish " Butcher's dog " is no way hicking on that point. Any reader who has 
visited Sniithfield market in London, on Monday or Friday, will, no doubt, have formed the 
same opinion. There you have an opportunity of seeing a number of these useful animals 
at their work. It would, in fact, be almost inipossible to conduct this market without their 
aid. There a vast number of different animals are brought for sale from all parts of the 
country, to supply this great metropolis, and are collected in the smallest possible space. 
The difficulty of keeping them from mingling with otiiers falls principally on the dog. If 
one slips away, or a particular one is wished to be caught, it is pf)iiited out to him, and is re- 
turned back, or held till the owner takes it — the dog always holding them by the side of the 
head, so as not to bruise the body. By a word or motion of the hand, they will run over 
the backs of the sheep, to stop "them or turu them in a different direction. I have often 
admired, with astonishment, their quick and intelligent actions. They appear to read the 
thoughts of their master by his comitenance, for their eye is continually on his, or the flock. 
Nothing else can attract his attention when he has work to peribrm, and at times I have 
thought he acted with more judgment than the owner. . . . The breed of " Boxer," (whose 
portrait is above given,) is sometimes called the Drover's or Tailless breed." 

Mr. Colman, in one of his Reports, says: 

" For a week or more before the tryst, the roads leading to Falkink vi^ill be found crowded 
with successive droves of cattle and sheep, proceeding to this central point ; and it is ex- 
tremely curious on the field to see with what skill and care the different parties and herds 
are kept together by themselves. In this matter the shepherds are generally assisted by 

» Vol. i., p. 575. 



i' 



288 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY TN THE SOUTH. 



their do^a, which appear endowed with a sagacity almost human, and almost to know every \ 

individual belnnginj; to their charge. They are sure, with an inflexible pertinacity, to bring i* 

back a deserter to the flock." i 

Mr. T. C. Peters, (now of Buffalo, N. Y..) on his return from Europe, a , 

few years since, brought over a Drover and a Colley. His testimony to I 

their extraordinary value will be found in the American Agriculturist, vol, 1 

iii., page 76. \ 

Fig. 73. 




The Scotch Sheep-Dog or Colley. — The light, active, sagacious Colley 
admits of no superior — scarcely of an equal — where it is his business 
merely to manage his flock, and not to defend them from beasts larger 
than himself Mr. Hogg says that "a single shepherd and his dog will 
accomplish more in gathering a flock of sheep from a Highland farm than 
twenty shepherds could do without dogs. Neither hunger, fatigue, nor 
the worst treatment will drive him from his master's side, and he will 
follow him through every hardship without murmur or repining." 

The same well-known writer, in a letter in Blackwood's Magazine, gives 
a most glowing description of the qualities of his Colley, " Sirrah." One 
night a flock of lambs, under his care, frightened at something, made 
what we call in America a regular stampede, scattering over the hills in 
several diflt3rent bodies, " Sirrah," exclaimed Hogg in despair, "they're 
a' awa ! " The dog dashed off through the darkness. After spending, 
with his assistants, the whole night in a fruitless search after the fugitives, 
Mr. Hogg commenced his return to his master's house. Coming to a 
deep ravine, they fotmd Sirrah in charge, as they at first supposed, of one 
of the scattered divisions, but what was their joyful surprise to find that 
not a lamb of the whole flock was missing! 

Of the stanch devotedness of the Colley, under any and all circum- 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 289 



Stances, Mr. Peters gives, in the American Agriculturist, the following 
characteristic illustration, copied from a Scotch paper : 

" The master of the bitch purchased at a fair some eighty sheep, and having occasion to 
stay a day longer, sent them forward and directed bis faithful Colley to drive them home, a 
distance of about 17 miles. The poor bitch, when a few miles on the road, dropped two 
whelps; but faithful to her charge, she drove the sheep on a mile or two farther— then 
allowing them to stop, she returned for her pups, which she carried some two miles in 
advance of the sheep, and thus she continued to do, altenaately carrying her own young ones, 
and taking charge of the flock, till she reached home. The manner of her acting on this 
occasion was gathered by the shepherd from various persons who had observed her on the 
road. " 

The Colleys are not now uncommon in the Northern States, and I have 
often seen proofs of their singular sagacity in collecting, driving, and 
guarding sheep, and in catching out one from the flock when directed by 
their masters. I have often seen one drive a flock of fifty or sixty sheep 
through a crowed street, encountering teams, pedestrians, and other dogs 
at every step — without the slightest assistance. 

Accustoming the Sheep to the Dog. — It is a mistake to suppose that a 
trained sheep-dog will manage any strange flock, however wild and unac- 
customed to such company. The sheep must be gradually made acquainted 
with, and accustomed to the dog. They must know — and they will 
readily learn it — that he is their friend, their guardian and protector, 
instead of that hereditary enemy which their instinct teaches them to fly 
from. A want of knowledge of this fact has frequently led to disappoint- 
ment and disgust, to a giving up of the valuable dog which it has cost 
pains and money to procure. Mr. Skinner relates a ludicrous incident of 
Mr. Jefferson, arising from his not being apprized of this fact. A thoroughly 
broken sheep-dog had been sent him from abroad, and the great Sage of 
Monticello, after having held forth ore rotundo to some visitors, on the 
value of these dogs, and their immense convenience — nay, their indispens- 
ability in managing flocks, led forth his guests to give a practical exempli- 
fication of the qualities of his dog. At the word, the latter made for the 
sheep. The terrified animals fled in all directions, some of them dashing 
themselves over precipices and breaking their necks. The dog either 
shared the same fate, or, mortified at his failure, felt his pride too deeply 
wounded to return. Mr. Jefferson never recovered him ! 



WOOL DEPOTS. 

Commission merchants who confine their operations exclusively to the 
sale of Wool, have opened large stores or " Depots," at three or four points 
in the Northern States. Of the origin of this system, Mr. H. Blanchard, 
of Kinderhook, N. Y,, thus spoke at the Agricultural meeting at the 
Assembly Chamber, Albany, Feb. 3, 1848 : 

" From farts that were ascertained by Hon. .T. P. Beekman, (then President of the N. Y. 
State Agricultural Society,) at the State Fair held in Poughkeepsie, in 1844, he became con- 
vinced that the growers of Dutchess county, by reason of the superior facilities atfui-ded 
them for the sale of their tine wools, were procuring from six to eight cents per pound more 
than many wool-growers in other sections of the State who produced the same quality of 
wool. The largequantity of fine wool grown in that county, offered great inducements for 
manufacturers ana purchasers of fine wool to make that a place of resort to obtain their sup- 
plies, and thus a fair competition was awakened, which resulted in a just appreciation of the 
relative value of their wools, and remunerating prices to the fine wool grower. Soon after 
Dr. B.'s return, the evils consequent upon the system of selling wools in our county, as well 
as elsewhere, became a matter of discussion between him and other wool-growers in our 
vicinity and myself, the result of which was a request from them that I would ojien what 
we now term a •' Wool Depot." The principles involved in the depot system are not new, 
it being conducted upon those of a commission business ; but it is only the details and appli- 

20 



290 SHEEP HUSBANDRY TN THE SOUTH. 

cation of these principles to wool when received direct from the grower, that had never be- 
fore in this country been applied in the same discriminating manner, and with as little 
expense as by this system." 

The objects and advantages of the system, and the method of conduct- 
ing these establishments are clearly set forth in the following letter from i 
my friend Mr. Peters, to whom, as a keeper of one of these Depots, and a ' 
gentleman of conceded ability — as well as skill, energy and success j 
in this and in his other business operations — I thought it appropriate to j 
apply for this information. | 

H. S. Randall, Esq. Buffalo. N. Y., Dec. 16, 1847. 

My Dear Sir : Your kind favor of the 12th inst., making inquiries relative to the Wool [ 

Depot system, is before me. } 

It will give me pleasure to answer your queries, not that by so doing I can add anything 1 

to the exceeding great value of your Letters to the whole country, and especially to the t 

South and West — yet from my own experience as a wool-grower, and in the management I 

of a Wool Depot which I established at this place last spring, I may give some information i 

that will be useful to your readers, and may they be millions. In so doing, I will give you ; 
1st, An account of the object; 2d, The method of doing business ; and 3d, The advantages 

of the Wool Depot system. \ 

The Object. — Upon no sheep is the wool exactly alike over the whole body ; nor is the ! 
wool exactly alike upon any single flock. In most flocks there is a great diversity — greater 1 
than there should be for the farmer's profit. There is, then, a variety of grades of wool iu ^ 
every flock, and in every section of the country where wool is grown. i 

Manufacturers first grade the wool ; that is, sort the fleeces, making fi-om five to eight or 
nine difl'erent grades. Bach fleece is then opened, nnd stapled, or sorted into the various I 
grades of the factoiy. Some manufactories use only the finest, others only the coarsest, and 
others again use only one kind of the intermediate sorts, so that from a single flock, I 
sold this year wool to five dift'erent manufacturers, no one wanting or working the kind that 
the other wanted. 

The object of the Wool Depot is to sort and arrange the wool, that the manufacturer can 
readily obtain the pailicular kind adapted to his machinery, and to obtain for each sort its 
fair market value. 

Method of doing Business. — The system originated with Mr. H. Blancliard, at Kinder- 
hook, some three years ago. Last year, we sent our wool to Mr. Blanchard, and during the 
winter I visited his establishment, and was so well satisfied with the operation of it, and 
of the vital importance of the system to the wool-growers eveiy where, that I at once made 
arrangements to open one at tin's point. I accordingly commenced operations in the spring, 
and have been successful beyond my most sanguine expectations. 

I have a competent and experienced sorter, and when wool is sent in, it is at once sorted 
in the fleece, each sort weighed, and entered iu a book under the name of the person send- 

I have adopted Mr. Blanchard's method of sorting, as experience has shown that to be the 
best, under all circumstances. I make, then, five sorts, taking full-blooded Merino for No. 
1, and grading down to coarse conunon wool, which is No. 5. Saxony I grade into Extra, 
Prime 1, and Prime 2. Then there is a kind of wool which is admirable for combing, and 
another kind that is wanted for De Laines ; — these form five more sorts, making thus ten 
sorts. But as there is such a difterence m the condition of wool when brought into the 
Depot, I usually make two sorts of each number. Thus I have No. 2, and No 2 a. No. 2 
is usually good, but No. 2 a is of the same grade, but is in better condition, every way a 
choice article, but still not fine enough to go into a higher grade. The wool is actually 
worth two or three cents per lb. more than the other number to which it belongs, and but 
for making this distinction, would not bring its full value. When the wool is properly sorted, 
it is piled up in a manner that will enable the purchaser to see it at a good advantage ; — in- 
sured, and held until the market requires it. I make all my sales here, and for cash. 
When the sales are closed, an account is made out and sent to those who have sent me their 
wool ; usually, an account is rendered as fiist as any part of a man's wool is sold. I have 
often been asked, how I could tell whether any man's wool was sold, unless the whole of a 
Bort was sold at a time. It is very easy. Suppose A. has 100 lbs. of No. 1, and I have sold 
20,000 lbs. out of 40,000 lbs. — that being the whole amount in the Depot. I have sold one- 
half of each man's No. 1, and I turn to A.'s account and give him credit for 50 lbs. sold, and 
so go through ami credit each man with his proportion of that number sold. 

The charges are, for receiving, sorting, and selling, one cent per lb., and the insurance— 
which is usually about 30 cts. on $100, for three months. Cartage fiom the dock is usually 
three cents per bale. The sacks are returned or sold at the option of the owner. They are 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 291 

!isual]y worth about fifty cents, more or less, according to their condition. Each man's 
wool is carefiiUy examined; if put up in bad order, it is so noted, and a deduction made by 
the sorter, to make it as it should be. So that it is no object for a man to send to the Depot 
wool in a bad condition. 

The Advaktages. — The foregoing facts would seem to be so plain that it cannot be 
necessary to refer to the advantages. No man, however, is more at the mercy of the specu- 
lator, than the wool-grower. The very fact that he has so many kinds of wool in his clip, 
prevents him from ascertaining the market value of the whole, for being in comparatively 
small quantities, he has not enough, if ever so well sorted, to make it an object for the differ- 
ent manufacturers to visit him. He is therefore compelled to sell his whole clip at the 
price of his present quality, and at prices from five to fifteen cents per lb. under the real 
market value of his wool. Allow me to illustrate by an example. A farmer has his wheat, 
corn, oats, and barley, all mixed, and carries it to market in this condition. Will anybody 
give him the value of each kind of grain? On the contrary, they would not be willing to 
pay even the value of the cheapest kind. And yet each kind by itself has a market value. 
Precisely in the same situation is the wool-grower, except that he has no means of knowing 
the value of the various sorts of wool, except from the speculator. 

The advantage of the Depot system, then, is, that there his wool is properly sorted. The 
wheat is separated from the corn, the corn from the oats, and the oats from the barley, and 
each is made to bring its fair market value. By having an extensive correspondence among 
the manufacturers throughout the country, I am kept constantly advised of the maiket ; and 
knowing the price of cloth in the cities, I am enabled to know to a certainty what the price 
of tlie various grades of wool should be. 

When the naanufacturer can get the kind of wool he wants, and in large quantities, he is 
willing to pay, and does pay a better price than when he has to buy that which he does not 
want, to get the right sort. It also equalizes the market, and brings the producer and the 
manufacturer together, without being compelled to pay agents or speculators, and prevents 
that fluctuation of the mai-ket wliich is always produced by speculation. 

But there is another very great advantage growmg out of the system. It enables the wool- 
growers in the various sections of the country to compare wool, and to know who has really 
the best and most profitable kinds of sheep. It has been strikingly manifest with me this 
season. For I have been enabled to point out to people in different States West, where 
they could find the most profitable sheep, by the wool wliich had been sent me. And iu 
one instance men had been over five hun/lred miles after sheep, and paid high prices, when 
there were sheep in their own town worth double the money. 

There is no difficulty in sending wool here llom any part of the country bordering upon 
the Ohio, or its tributaries. The expense of transportation will range from one to one and 
a half cents per lb. — depending much upon the bargain made with the clipper. I have re- 
ceived wool this year fiom all the Western States, in some instances as far West as the Mis- 
sissippi River, and the average cost for freight has been about one cent per lb. 

It was urged by many last spring that this city was not a good p"int, inasmuch as it was 
not sufficiently central in its location. For nothing is more certain, than that a wool Depot, 
to be successful, must be so located as to command a large amount of wool. The larger 
amount you can concentrate at a point, the more rapid and sure will be your sales. To this 
city the products of the West naturally tend, and to this point the producer can calculate with 
gi-eat certainty when, and at what expense it will arrive. But after its trans-shipment here, 
expenses accumulate, without any corresponding benefit. And it is peculiarly so, iu regard 
to wool, coming as it often does in bad order, sacks torn, broken, and wet. 

But I have made my letter already longer than I intended, and in speaking of my own 
Depot have perhaps gone more into detail than is necessary. 

This much I must be permitted to say to every wool-grower, that the Wool Depot system, 
properly conducted and patronized, is indispensable to ultimate and profitable success. 

I remain, my dear sir. 

Very sincerely yours, 

T. C. Peters. 

Messrs. Perkins and Brown have a Depot at Springfield, Mass. ; and 
I believe the establishment of two or three others is in contemplation, by- 
companies or individuals. 

Conducted with skill and fidelity, there can be but little doubt that these 
establishments are alike beneficial to the wool-grower and manufacturer. 
That Mr. Blanchard's and Mr. Peters's have thus far been so conducted, there 
is not the least doubt. Of the other I know nothing, though report speaks 
well of it. The design was not regarded with much favor, in the out- 
set, by many of our most extensive wool-growers. They preferred to " do 



292 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

their own business, " and not "pay the wages of an intermediate agent. " 
But the advantages derived from selling the wool in sorted lots, have been 
found to far more than overbalance the one cent per pound paid to the 
" agent" or Depot keeper, and the system is rapidly gaining favor. Many 
of our most experienced wool growers in this State — men the most com- 
petent to favorably dispose of their wool — have sent their wool to Messrs. 
Blanchard and Peters, and I have yet to see or hear of the first person 
who has been disappointed in the result. 

If wool Depots are beneficial in the North, where the agents of different 
manufacturers, and " speculators," visit every man's barn to bid on his 
wool — and among a class of growers, too, who, from long experience, are 
familiar with the qualities and comparative values of the staple — how 
much more beneficial would they be to regions in which the growers are 
so scattered that they are rarely visited by traveling agents — or if so, not 
in numbers sufficient to produce that competition which would compel them 
to offer the fair market value of the article : and where, perhaps, in many 
cases, the growers themselves have not sufficient experience to determine 
the exact grade of their own clips, even supposing them correctly notified 
from time to time from abroad, of the market value of the several grades! 
The Depot system, in my judgment, removes the great and only serious obsta- 
cle to successful icool-growing in the South. 

It is not necessary that Depots be established in the Southern States, to 
have those States reap the full benefit of the system. For the present, and 
for some time to come, at least, the North will furnish the best home mar- 
ket for fine wools. The wool therefore must, until some changes take 
place, come to the North before it is sold ; and the transportation must be 
equally subtracted from the avails, whether the sale is effected at home or 
at a Northern wool Depot. Indeed, it would be better to store it in a De- 
pot at Kinderhook or Buffalo, than at Charleston or Nashville. And 
this is for the reason that the two former are much nearer to, and can be 
more speedily visited by the principal woolen manufacturers of the Uni- 
ted States, than the latter. The New- York or New-England manufac- 
turer would be little likely to send an agent to Charleston or Nashville, if 
he could supply his wants equally cheaply (with the addition of cost of 
transportation), from Buffalo, Kinderhook, or Springfield. And if supplied 
any more cheaply at the former places (price of transportation excepted), 
be it remembered, it would be so much unnecessarily taken out of the pocket 
of the grower. 

Should the South at any future day find it more for her interest to ship 
her wools to Europe, the above considerations will cease to be valid. She 
would then want Depots as much as now, for far more gain, proportiona- 
bly, is made by sorting wool for the foreign, than the American markets. 
But in that event, the Depots would assume a different character, and 
they would be most appropriately located at the port whence the wools 
were shipped. 

A CORRECTION.— MR. RUFFIN. 

In the beginning of Letter VI., 1 made the following remark in relation 
to Hon. Edmund Ruffin — " He seems to think lime, of itself, adequate to 
the full and permanent amelioration of the tertiary soils." — This remark 
was made on a somewhat too hasty inspection of some of Mr. Ruffin's po- 
sitions in the Agricultural Survey of South Carolina. Since writing it, I 
have had the pleasure of reading for the first time Mr. R.'s highly valua- 
ble work on Calcareous Manures, and find that I was in error in the state- 
ment above made. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 293 



NOTE IN RELATION TO AUSTRALIA. 

Since the preceding Letters were completed, the exceedingly interesting 
article from the (English) Farmers' Magazine, which is published below, 
has met my eye. It will be seen from it that the conclusions arrived at 
by me (see page 123,) in relation to the vast increase in the trans-Atlantic 
demand for wool and woolens, are in a rapid course of verification. I 
wrote from statistics extending down to 1840. In that year the English 
import of wool was forty-six millions of pounds. In 1845, according to 
the subjoined authority, it was seventy-six millions of pounds. And this 
rapid increase took place, notwithstanding the vast extension in the woolen 
manufactures in other nations, particularly in Germany, France, Spain and 
Belgium. The extract given from Waterton's " Cyclopaedia of Com- 
merce," asserting the improbability of a much greater extension of the 
English woolen manufactures, "unless new markets shall be opened," may 
be true. But new markets are yet to spring up in Central and Northern 
Asia, and even in Northern Europe, which will, in the aggregate, require 
an increase of woolen manufactures which the boldest calculator now 
scarcely dreams of. For the reasons for this opinion, see page 123. — 
Whether England is to supply a greater or less portion of this increasing 
demand remains to be seen. If she continues as well prepared as she 
now is to compete with other manufacturing nations, doubtless she will 
contribute her full share to that supply. 

It will also be seen, from the annexed paper, that what I predicted (see 
page 121) in relation to the prospective competition (from the year 1840) 
in wool-growing, between the densely populated countries of Western 
Europe and. those in newer settled regions, where land, is cheap and popu- 
lation comparatively sparse, has already come to pass. Spain, and even 
Germany, which in 1840 supplied England with nearly twenty-two million 
pounds of wool — nearly half of the whole import of the latter — have now 
been driven almost entirely out of the English market ! But, says the 
Sr/dney Herald, Germany, Spain, etc., have renewed the contest in another 
form : they have extended their manufacturing operations, and now manu- 
facture their own wool. Admit this : but if German wools cannot com- 
pete with others in the English market, which are brought from fifty times 
the distance, they cannot compete with them even in the German market, 
unless the latter are kept out by duties. The German manufacturer, then, 
in working up home wools, pays more for his raw material than the Eng- 
lish manufacturer, and he cannot, therefore, compete with him in foreign 
markets, nor even in the home one, without a protective Tariff' which 
would raise the price of the English to that of the German article. — 
Tariffs materially enhancing the cost of the necessaries of life will not long 
be tolerated by the consuming millions, in regions where civilization has 
penetrated. 

It seems that Australia and Van Diemen's Land are the successful com- 
petitors which have driven Germany and Spain from the English wool 
market. The views set forth by me in Letter IX. in relation to the ad- 
vantao-es of the former for wool-growing compared with those of Hungary, 
Southern Russia, North and South America, remain the same ; indeed, a 
careful review of my positions has served to farther convince me of their 
correctness. The character of the population, and the better commercial 
regulations of Australia, have given her a present advantage over new ri- 
vals in the Old World ; and America has not yet entered the field of com- 
petition. When the Anglo-Saxon of North America enters the lists with 
the Anglo-Saxon of Australia, natural advantages will not, as now, be 



294 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

ovei'balanced by superior energy and enterprise. The Anglo-Australian 
will, to say the least of it, meet his full equal in these particulars. And, 
on the other hand, there is not a rational doubt that the natural and other 
present advantages of all hinds are on the side of the Anglo- American. The 
portion of North America included in the proper wool-growing zone is 
immensely greater than in Australia ; our climate, all things considei'ed — 
considering the occasional terrible drouths of Australia — is the best; our 
lands are cheaper, and will certainly average as good, including our whole 
Atlantic coast, and including only our territory between the Apalachians 
and the Rocky Mountains, our land will average by far the best ; labor is 
not dearer among us ; we are not a quarter as distant from the English 
markets ; the wool from all parts of our immense interior, instead of be- 
ing dragged long and expensive journeys in "bullock drays," is already \ 
whirled along by steam, or boated on canals or rivers to the seaboard, at j 
a comparatively trifling expense. It would be difficult to name a particu- | 
lar, excepting in the two-cent duty, in which large portions of the United | 
States have not the advantage over Australia for supplying the English ',] 
wool market, and in other. European markets we have perhaps every ad- 
vantage over that Colony. 

The Australian Wool Trade* — [By Wm. Westgarth, Esq.] — The importance at j| 
present assumed by the Australian wool trade in the lists of British Commerce, demands 
some degree of attention in the history of an Australian settlement. I shall, therefore, de- 
vote the "present chapter to a short account of this branch of Commerce, in its capacity both 

of an export fi-om the Austi-alian Colonies and an import into the British maiket. : 

In the year 1836, the quantity of wool exported from Sydney amounted to 3,700,000 lbs. i 

weight. The proportion for the Port Philip distinct, included in this amount, could not, at i 

60 early a period of her existence, have exceeded 60,000 lbs. weight. Five years afterward :! 

the annual produce had attained to 1,578,000 lbs. ; and the lapse of a similar period, bring- j 

inc us down to the year 1846, exhibits the astonishing quantity of 7,400,000 Ibs.t During \ 

this interval of ten years the quantity of wool exported from Sydney, exclusive of any from : 

Austialia Felix, had increased from tlnee and a half millions to nearly twelve millions of * 

poimds weight. _ ... ' 

The importation of wool into the British market appears, indeed — like the rise of the Aus- ( 

ti-alian Colonies — to be but a business of yesterday, and one, among numerous other in- .1 

stances, of the wondeiful extension of Modern Commerce. In 1820, the quantity imported ' 

was under ten millions of pounds weight; in 1845, it had risen to seventy-six millions. The '• 

proportion from the Austi-alian Colonies in the former year was the one-liundredlh part ; it \ 

now forms nearly one-half of the whole importation+ ; and at the steady and rapid ratio of ; 

the present increase of Australian wool, the lapse of a few years will exhibit a quantity far '. 

greater than the united total of the wool at present imported into Britain from every quar- i 

ter of the world. The following Table exhibits the respective averages, in roimd numbers, .i 

for each period of five years from 1826 to 1845; the numbers representing millions of \ 
pounds weight : 

Average of vears. Foreign Wool. Colonial Wool. Total i 

1826-30 25 2 27 f 

1831-35 34 4 38 jl 

1836-40 44 10 54 .; 

1841-45 36 22 58 \ 

1846 34 30 64 ; 

This Table illustrates the extraordinary progress of the colonial production, tliree-lburth." 

of which are derived from Australia and Van Dienien's Land. \ 

The periodical public sales of colonial wool, which now occupy so important a position , 
among the commercial occurrences of the British Capital, date their origin only so lately as 

the year 1817. The prices at that time, and for some subsequent period, were only from i 

2d. to 3d. per lb. ; and it was not until twelve or fourteen years afterward that any important ' 

advance took place in the value of this commodity. The fine quality of the Austi-alian wool - 

J 

* From a nev? work in the presa, on Port Philip. 

t The wools occasionally sent liom Port Philip by way of Sydney, and appearing in the Customs' retuma ' 
as Sydney exports, are here allowed for. The season or year is taken as ending on the lOth October, as ! 
the usual date of 31st December falls in the midst of the wool shipments, and cannot fairly represent the '\ 
quantities and ratio of progress of each year. 

t In 1846, the relative quantities imponed into Britain were, in round numbers, thirty-four millions of ,i 
pounds of foreign wool and thirty minions of colonial. For the present year the colonial may be safely 
assumed at somewhat more than hall" the importation. 



SHEEP EUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 295 

began soon after to atti-act notice, and in 1835 and 1836 to excite the attention even of foreign 
manufacturers. From veiy small beginnings the extent of the periodical auction sales 
gradually increased. An unprecedented number of 750 bales was announced ibr one series 
of sales in 1825 ; and for some years afterward 400 bales were considered to form a very ex- 
tensive sale. But in July, 1835, 8,746 bales were brought forward, realizing for the better 
qualities the considerable rates of from 28. 6d. to 3s. 8d. per pound ; and at the sales of the 
same month in 1844, there were exposed no less than 31,358 bales.* 

The celebrated wools of Australia are derived from two principal breeds of sheep, the 
Merino and the Saxon. The Ibnner is the finest in quality, but it may be doubted if an 
adequate price has been hitherto derived to compensate for the lighter weight of the fleece. 
In the Sydney distiict, attention was chiefly bestowed on the Merino ; in Van Diemeu's 
Land, on the Saxon ; and the Port Philip district received a share of both, as the colonists 
from either locality transported their flocks to her pastures. This mixture of breeds was 
still farther increased by occasional crosses with the Leicester and South-Down. In fact, 
from the numbers of inexperienced persons who entered on the occupation of sheep farming 
in this new settlement, and, vdthout any fixed principles, carried on a mere random system 
of breeding, the greater portion of the wool consists of every shade of quality that natural 
accidents could produce. The abundant pasturage of Port Philip appears also to affect the 
pure Merino wool of the Sydney disti-ict, which in the former locality acquiies a more open 
appearance, loses somewhat of its fineness, and increases about a quarter or half a pound in 
the weight of the fleece. The average weight of the good qualities of Port Philip fleeces, 
after washing, is from 2J to 2| lbs. ; of the Sydney fleeces about 2^ lbs. There has been 
for several years a desii-e to introduce a greater uniformity of quality in the fleeces of each 
particular grower, and on the whole an incUnation to adhere to the production of the finer 
qualities of wool. 

[ Here follow details of the Australian method of washing and other preparations for shearing, which are 
omitted, as they conform in every important particular to the directions laid down in these Letters for 
those processes.] 

The wool is now ready to be packed and dispatched to the port of shipment. Each fleece 
is cleared of the locks and clippings or other unseemly portions, and is usually tied with a 
piece of string, and tightly squeezed into bags containing about one hundred each, or from two 
hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds weight. The ponderous bullock dray is now yoked 
to its team of eight or a dozen oxen, and charged with an ample load of the golden fleece, is 
dispatched from the station on its annual and protracted mission to the port of shipment. 

The wool on its arrival in town is now generally classed and re-packed at an establishment 
for that purpose, unless this process has already been competently performed at the station. — 
The classification distinguishes only the entire fleece ; it is not attempted to proceed to,a 
minuter distinction of qualities by breaking the fleeces. When intended for sale, the wool, 
on its arrival in town, is conveniently exhibited in the various bins of the sorting establish- 
ment, and its quality and condition are fairly ascertained. At the establishment of the Messrs. 
Bakewell, in Melbourne, the wool is assorted first into the two leading divisions of clothing 
and combing, and each of these descriptions is run out into five qualities, the fifth or lowest 
being the coarse Leicester breeds. Extra fine lots are classed by themselves ; s^iper-gresmy, 
or kempy, or other defective fleeces, are also classed apart. The charge for sorting is ^d. per 
pound. The usual charge for hand-vi-ashing is Id. per pound on the weight returned, and for 
scouring Id. to l^d. per pound. The system of re-packing is also of use in exposing any wet 
or damp that the wool may have acquired on the way from the interior, in which condition it 
is in danger of heating and even of originating fire in the hold of a vessel during a lengthened 
voyage. 

The shipping season for the Australian staple commences toward the end of October ; but 
only a few solitaiy drays have succeeded in reaching town during that month. Considera- 
ble quantities have anived by the end of November; and during the two succeeding months 
there is a continuous succession of vehicles pouring with their voluminous loads into the various 
ports of the district.t These arrivals begin to fall oft' in February ; but during that and the 
two succeeding months considerable quantities continue to be shipped, including the later shorn 
fleeces of the young lambs. The shipment of other exports, which are comparatively of un- 
important amount, terminates with that of the wool. A solitary vessel may finger till July or 
August, when the transactions of the season are finally closed. 

The following from a late number of the Sydney Herald may be well appended to the 
above : 



* This included a small quantity of foreign wool. The proportion from Australia and Van Biemen's 
Land on this occasion was 26,134 bales. The early sales were held at Garraway'e, and continued there 
from 1817 to 1843. when the locality was transtened to the Hall of Commerce, where they still continue. 
The first bale at the fiist sale, from the novelty of the circumstance, realized lOs. 6d. per pound. 

[Mark Lane Express, 7th, 14th, and 2l6t Oct. 1844. 

t There are tive shipping ports in Australia Felix ; namely, Melboui-ue, or its port of Williamnown, Gee- 
long, Portland, Belfast, and Port Albert, or Albeiton, in liipps's Land. The quantity for the present year 
(1847) may be estimated at about 38,000 bales, of which fise-sixths are shipped at Williamstown and 
Geelong. 



296 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH. 

'• Our two time-honored competitors in the production of fine wool. Spain and Germany, 
have been fairly beaten out of the field. The climate and pasturage of ihese colonies, and of the 
congenial settlement at the Cape of Good Hope, backed by the energies of their Anglo-Saxon, 

race of flock-masters, have more than compensated for our gieater distance from British mar- [ 

kets. We have been enabled to supply a good article — in vast and ever-increasing quanti- I 

ties — and at prices which, notwithstanding the cost of carriage, have, through our facilities of | 

protluction, lel't us a remunerating profit, but which our ancient rivals have fomid to be in- J 

Bufficient to replace prime cost. I 

" But althon',h Spain and Germany have ceased to vie with us as sellers of the raw mate- | 

rial in England, they have done so only to renew the contest in another form. They have ! 

enlarged their manufacturing operations. Since they can no longer sell their fleece at a profit, d 

they have resolved on working it up in their own looms. To that extent, therefore, they wUi J 

cease to import wrought woolen fabrics ; and in so far as their imports were from Great j 

Bi'itain, there will be a corresponding decrease in the British consumption of our wools. The ' 

woolen cloths imported into those two countries from Great Britain, in the year 1841, amounted, i 

iii declared value, to £1,026.481 sterling: and if we add the quantities imported in the same j 

year into Holland and Belgium, the amount would have been about a million and a half. We } 

must therefore be cautious, as prudent men, not to allow oiu' spirits to be too much exhilarated * 

by the apparent victory we have gained over ' our hereditary enemies,' seeing that, though \ 

Beemingly vanquished, they have but shifted their position and varied their tactics. i 

" A judicious writer says, in 1844 : ' Of late years cottons have, from their cheapness, in a | 

great degree superseded the lower qualities of cloths — a circumstance which, joined to the ' 

increasing rivalry of France, Germany and Belgium, renders it improbable, unless new mar- f 

kets shall be opened in China or elsewhere, that much extension will in future be given to \ 

our manufacture of u'oolc?i cloths.^* i 

" While, however, the Sjianish and the German wool-growers have thus ceased (or are j 

expected veiy shortly to cease) to compete with us as exporters to England, another com- t 

petitor has sprung up in a new and quite unexpected quarter. In addition to corn, bread- | 

stuffs, rice, tobacco, cotton, sugar, and an endless catalogue of ' notions,' in which Brother ' 

Jonathan has hitherto pi ided himself as a mighty pi'oducer, he has now taken it into his - 

head that he cau breed sheep and export wool on a large scale. And it would seem that in * 

England his whim has by no means been thought whimsical. For, say certain Liverpool "j 

brokers to him, under date of 3d September, 1846 : ' The arrivals of wool from the United j 

States last year, for the first time to any extent, made quite a sensation in this country, as it "i 

was generally considered that you required to import these qualities, and there was no I 

knowledge that your growth of wool was of such importance. We have seen it estimated I 

at iixty-five million pounds ; t and from your vast (and to us almost incredible) means of j 

production, we believe it will cause a kind of revolution in the wool trade.'' ' 

" Jonathan's own opinion of the matter is thus expressed through the medium of the New- .; 
Orleans Commercial Times : ' Wool can be grown as cheaply, and to as great advantage, in 
the cotton-growing States as in any part of the world. There is nothuig in the climate to 

prevent it. If it may be found desirable to grow that of the finest grades, it can be done j 

without fear of the animals becoming covered with hair in a few years.' He has evidently j 

some misgivings, however, as to the policy of his attempting the finest grades, tiir he imme- 1 

diately subjoins, ' However, we are inclined to think that wool of a coarser quality will be }. 

found most profitable, mutton being also an object with us.' j 

" If the United States already produce four times the quantity of wool that we do, and if I 
there is a reasonable chance of their producing it of a quality equal to ours, and at no greater 1 
cost, then have we indeed much to fear from their formidable I'ivalry. The vast extent of I 
their territory, the almost illimitable resources of their soil and climate, the indomitable spirit i' 
of their citizens, combined with their proximity to the British market, will render their com- 
petition, if successful at all, successful in no onlinary degree. ^ 

" ' Wool,' says another Liverpool correspondent, addressing an American, ' requires in its 1 

production great attention in crossing the breed, otherwise the quality degenerates very \ 

quickly. The maintenance of its fineness depends also very much on the nature of the pas- * 

turage on which the sheep graze. And we may remark that your own samples are of a par- i 

ticularly good kind.'' " J 

Here is a word of encouragement for the Americans, with a word of caution for the Aus- '', 
tralians. Of the two requisites for the production and preservation of a superior staple, one, 

suitable pasturage, is bountifully supplied to the Australian grower by Natxire, while the | 

other depends upon his own industry and skill. In this, it is to be feared, he has scarcely .-. 

been just to himself. He has possil)ly presumed too much upon the natural advantages of ] 

the fine sheep-sustaining country in which his capital is staked. It will be well if this note 1 

of warning from the land of Stars and Stripes shall rouse him to a more vigilant attention. •! 

[Simmonds's Colonisd Magazine. ,'j 

* Waterton's Cyclopififiia of Commerce, p. 672. ! 

t The q\iaiitiiv of wool exported Irom New South Wales, including the district of Port Philip.in the year ! 

1843, was 17,564,734 lbs. j 



APPENDIX. 



ON SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Report on the Value of Sheep Husbandry. Read to the Agncultural Society, Pendleton, 

South Carolina. 

In obedience to your resolution, requiring your committee to " report on 
Sheep Husbandry in the South," they beg leave to say that the resolution 
would seem to require a more extended examination than could be embraced 
in a I'eport of an ordinary length. 

They will therefore confine themselves to that part of the subject which, 
in their estimation, will best show the applicability and value of sheep hus- 
bandry to our neighborhood and section. 

Although but httle attention is given by any of us, to raising sheep, and 
by none to preparing wool for a foreign market, yet it will be admitted, that 
our native stock are healthy, growing to a fair size and produce a fair fleece, 
from two to five pounds, even under the great neglect with which they are 
treated. 

There is, however, one question necessary to examine, and that is, 
whether the quality and quantity of the fleece deteriorate in our climate. The 
question has been very fully examined by Mr. H. S. Randall, a very intel- 
ligent and experienced wool grower in Cortland, New York. From his 
excellent letters, published in the Farmers' Library, (the perusal of which 
I take pleasure in recommending to the members of this society,) I draw the 
following statement : 

" It is known that from Spain (north latitude 36 to 44 degrees) all the 
fine wooled flocks have sprung. And that in Saxony (north latitude 50 to 
51 degrees 30 minutes) the Spanish Merino avooI has been improved in 
fineness of fibre but lessened in quantity. In New York (north latitude 42 
to 44 degrees) the fineness of the Spanish Merino is preserved and quautity 
increased. In Vermont (north latitude 43 to 45 degrees) the fineness and 
quantity of the Saxony wool are preserved." 

South of us, in Madison county, Mississippi, (north latitude 32 degrees, 
41 minutes,) the wool of the Saxony sheep has been found to maintain its 
original fineness, and increased in quantity. Recent experiments in Aus- 
tralia (south latitude 33 degrees 55 minutes) show that fine wooled sheep 
(the Merino) preserve the quantity and improve in quality of fleece. 

The exports of vi^ool from tliere in 1810 was only 1G7 lbs. 

" " " in 1S33 « .... 3,516,869 " 

" " " in 1843 " .... 16,-220,400 « 

In 1834, London price for best Spanish Merino, was - - - - 67 cts. 

" Australian Merino, - 100 " 

« English wool, 48 " 

2P 29T 



298 APPENDIX. 

In England, (north latitude 50 to 56 degrees,) from some cause not yet 
settled, fine wool cannot be grown. 

Near the Cape of Good Hope, (south latitude 34 minutes,) Merino Sheep 
do well, maintaining both quality and quantity of fleece with Spain. 

The latitude of Pendleton is 34 degrees 40 minutes, but counting a de- 
gree for every 200 feet altitude, would throw us some twelve degrees farther 
north, and between the latitudes of Spain and Saxony. 

So far then as latitude is concerned, experiments have been made both 
north and south of us, which show, that here, Spanish Merino wool neither 
degenerates in quality nor,quantity of fleece. 

It is also known that rich succulent green food generally adds length to 
fibre, but does not always make fine wool coarser, at least between latitude 
28 and 50 degrees north, nor does it make coarse wool finer. Humidity 
and dryness of atmosphere seem to have, as well as climate, some influence 
on the fibre. But as yet, the laws which govern the fleece have not been 
satisfactorily ascertained. It is sufficient for the present inquiry that experi- 
ments verify the operation, that in this latitude Merino wool will not become 
coarser, nor the coarse long wool become finer, if each stock be kept pure. 
And as the climate is well adapted to both, the choice of stocks may very 
Avell be left to the fancy of those who try either. 

We come now to test the value of sheep husbandry to this section of 
country. There are many methods by which this can be done. I shall, 
however, take the simple one of comparing the profits of this with the other 
pursuits of the country. 

It is acknowledged in the Northern States that growing wool is a good 
business there, and I will first give a table from Mr. Randall's letter, show- 
ing the profits of growing wool in New York : 

A. buys 100 ewes at $2, $200 00 

" 33i acres of land at $20, 660 66 

Cutting and curing 11 acres of the above for hay, - - - - 13 65 

Pay for shearing, - ... . . . - - . - 4 00 

For salt, tar, and summer care, ..----.. 4 00 

For labor of winter feeding, ........ 5 00 

Loss by death 2 per cent, above pulled wool from those that die, - 4 00 

$S37 31 

HECEIPTS. 

300 lbs. wool at 394, $118 71 

80 lambs at §1, 80 00 

Summer manure equal to winter care, .... 5 00 

$203 71 

This is equal to 24 per cent, on the amount invested, and makes the cost 
of the wool to the farmer 27 cents per pound. A calculation founded on 
the same data for Pendleton makes the result more favorable : 

A. buys 100 ewes at $1, $100 00 

Pays for shearing, .......... 4 00 

For salt, tar, 2 00 

Loss 2 i}er cent, above skins and wool of those that die, - - - 2 00 
1 make no charge for summer pasture, because it costs nothing, nor should 
rye or barley pastures for winter be charged; the crop is reaped after- 
wards. But charge it at 20 cents per head, 20 00 

One hand's attention an hour in the morning to turn to pasture, and an hour 
in the evening to pen: this is one-sixth part of his time. Say his whole 
tijiie is worth $72 ; one-sixth is - - 12 00 

Total outlay and expense for feeding one year, - - $140 00 



APPENDIX. 299 



HECEIPTS. 

2 lbs. wool per head is 200 lbs., at 20 cents, ... $40 00 
80 lambs at Si when one year old, 80 00 

■^ $120 00 

This is 85 per cent. In this instance the wool costs the farmer nothing^. 
Deduct $90, the value of the original stock of ewes at the commencement 
of the next year, from $140, the total outlay, and you have $50, which the 
value of the lambs more than equal. 

Compare it with farming or planting : 

A. buys a negro for ^'^^'^ ^'^ 

' Furnishes him with fifteen acres of land at $5, 75 00 

Half the expenses of a horse and plough, 50 00 

For his board and clothing, 20 00 

$845 00 

RECEIPTS. 

. His labor, 160 barrels corn at 40 cents, .... $64 00 

5 bags cotton at $30 a bag, ■^^''' '^'^ <. , nr. 

$214 00 

This is equal to 25 per cent., certainly as much as any man in this 
neighborhood makes. I have purposely made this large estimate that no 
one can say it is under the truth. 

B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, common stock, at$l, - - ' $520 00 

Employs a shepherd, J^^ Oj^ 

Pays 20 cents for winter feed per head, ^^'* ^'tj 

Pays for tar and sah, ^^ ^^ 

B. has $76 less than A. in the outlay, ^§19 '^O 

RECEIPTS. 

3 lbs. wool per head is 1560 lbs. at 20 cents, - $312 00 
80 lambs to the 100 ewes is 400 lambs at $1, - - 4U0 00 

712 00 

Deduct for loss over skins and wool of those tliat die, 2 per cent., 18 40 

$693 60 

The outlay of A. ($890) brings him $210, equal to 25 per cent. The 
outlay of B. ($819) brings him $693 60, equal to 85 per cent. 

This calculation will do for the neighborhood of Pendleton or lower down, 
where sheep have to be fed during "the winter. But for all that part of 
Pickens and Greenville district, extending south for twenty-six or thirty 
miles from the foot of the mountains, the profits would be larger. For in 
that belt of country, I am informed by many residents— General Garvin 
among them — that the range affords sufficient food for sheep the entire year. 
Even°when snow is on the ground, they paw the snow away and get sus- 
tenance from the winter grass. 

For that section I would alter the calculation thus : 

B. buys 500 ewes and 20 bucks, $520 00 

Pays for a shepherd, ^on no 

Pays for salt and tar, ~0 UU 

$715 00 

RECEIPTS. 

1560 lbs. wool at 20 cents, $312 00 

90 lambs to the 100 ewes is 450 at $1, - - - 450 00 

— 762 00 

Deduct for loss 2 per cent, over skins and wool of those that die, 19 00 

. T\i ^^ no 
Making $28 more than 100 per cent. 



300 APPENDIX. 



But try it on a scale that every one can compare with his own expe- 
rience. 

B. buys 3 ewes and 1 buck for - . - - - - - - - $4 00 

He shears 12 lbs. of wool at 20 cents, - - - - - 2 40 

2 lambs at $1, 2 00 

Over 100 per cent. 4 40 

These are suppositions. Take what has actually occurred in Pickens 
district. Mr. Stribling, as I am informed by himself, bought one ewe 
for $1 : 

In 1846 she had 3 lambs, - $3 00 

Sheared 2 lbs. wool at 20 cents, ...... 40 



In 1847, same ewe had 2 Iambs, .... 
Sheared again 2 lbs. wool at 20 cents. 
Each one of the last year's lambs had a Iamb apiece. 
And sheared from the 3, 6 lbs. wool at 20 cents, 



2 


00 




40 


3 


00 


1 


20 



$3 40 



6 60 



This is an increase of eight in two years from one ewe, and Mr. Stribling 
says at this time the whole are alive. I admit this is an extraordinary case, 
and it is only mentioned to show there are cases of actual increase far 
above any of those calculations made above. 

If, then, the climate be not only adapted to fine wool, but also to the 
coarse — if the range, which is abundant and sufficient to feed a flock the 
entire year; and if the above calculations are founded on data anywhere 
near correct, what more can be desired to show the applicabiht}^ and value 
of sheep husbandry to this section. 

From three very respectable wool growers, one from each of the states of 
Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio, I was told the way to make a calcu- 
lation on the profits of sheep husbandry in a reasonably safe way, was to 
put down every year one-ninth less of lambs than you have ewes, and then 
deduct one-tenth from the whole for deaths in that year. 

Thus, say you have ......... lOO ewes. 

From 100 deduct one-ninth, and you have ...... 89 lambs. 

189 
Then deduct one-tenth for deaths, - - - - - - -18 

And you have - - - - - - - - - - -171 

To Start with the next year. On this basis I have taken one hundred ewes 
and run the calculation on for eight years. The result was : 

Wool sheared in eight years, 17,190 lbs. 

The gentlemen above alluded to, say that half the wool will pay all ex- 
penses, even when the winters require five months' feed : 

Deduct, then, one-half, 8,595, at 20 cents, $1719 00 

The increase amounted to 2067 sheep, at $1, .... 2067 00 

Total, $3786 00 

This result, if attained, would exceed fifty per cent, compounded. They 
say, too, it is a safe estimate to say that the lambs of each year will pay the 
expenses of the whole flock for that year in Pennsylvania. They more than 



APPENDIX. 301 

do it here. Allow eighty lambs to one hundred ewes, and you have from 
five hundred ewes, four hundred lambs ; deduct one-tenth for deaths, and 

You have 360 at $1, $360 00 

Charge 20 cents per head for 900 sheep, makes - - - 180 00 

Charge for shepherd, 150 00 — 330 00 

Lambs over-pay expenses by-------- $30 00 

All these calculations are made on the supposition that sheep get a part 
of that regular attention which all farmers give to their other domestic ani- 
mals. And to make sheep husbandry successful, it is not only necessary 
that this attention should be given, but every one who attempts it should 
know something of their diseases and the cures, and also the summer and 
winter management. This can be acquired only by their own, or the ex- 
perience of others. Easy access can be had to the experience of northern 
wool growers, who are proverbial for being close observers. They say the 
disease called the " scours" is the principal one to which sheep are liable, 
produced by excess of rich green food, and cured easily by a change to 
dry, but if allowed to continue, is fatal. 

From the introduction into the United States, in 1808, of Merino sheep 
from Spain, owners of this stock have considered it of the first importance 
to preserve the quality and quantity of their fleece, and if possible, to im- 
prove both. .They ascertained that lambs from young and healthy sires 
improved, while those from old ewes fell back both in quahty and quantity 
of fleece. 

Among them it is now a settled practice not to breed from ewes over 
seven or eight, nor from bucks over six years old. It is very important to 
resort to the evidence of age the teeth afford. Their books have been par- 
ticular in describing these evidences, which I will copy : "During the first 
year, lambs have eight small teeth in front, in the upper jaw, called nippers ; 
at a year old, the centre two shed, and two larger teeth take their place. 
At two years old, the next two are lost, and supplied by two larger ones. 
Thus losing and being supplied by two larger ones annually, till five — then 
they have a full set. At eight or nine they begin to lose their nippers — two 
every year — and by thirteen or fourteen years old, they have lost their 
entire set." 

It is evident that during the time ewes are losing their teeth, they become 
less and less able to supply themselves with food, consequently afford less 
and less milk for their young. Thus the degeneracy is accounted for. In 
Vermont, where wool is as much their staple as cotton in South Carolina, 
so important do they consider it not to breed from ewes after they begin to 
lose teeth, that although mutton is not used by the inhabitants for the table, 
they sell their old stock to be fed to hogs. 

In most of the other northern states, their ewes at that age are kept from 
the bucks, and fattened for market. From their known skill in managing 
well what they undertake, we may safely take their usage as a guide, when 
it is applicable to our situation. With them grass is the entire food of their 
flocks — green meadows for summer pasture and hay for winter. Their Avin- 
ters require five months' constant feeding, during which they estimate each 
sheep to consume fifty cents worth of hay. All stock is then kept enclosed, 
and the attention to turning sheep to pasture in summer, and feeding sheep 
in winter, requires but httle labor in addition to their other stock. 

Flocks require close attention but at three times in the year — the tupping, 
the lambing, and shearing seasons. Ewes go with lamb one hundred and 
twenty-five days, or five months, and they so manage as to have the lambs 



302 APPENDIX. 



brought in April and May ; (here February is esteemed by many a better 
month.) To do this, the bucks must be kept impounded, except at the 
time desired. From the great superiority of early lambs, this part of sheep 
husbandry is esteemed very important. 

During lambing season, close attention is required to guard both ewe and 
lamb from storms and cold winds — to see that the ewe acknowledges her 
lamb, and to keep up the marking and altering as the lambs get between 
five and ten days old. 

Ten days previous to shearing time they prepare for it by washing the 
wool on the sheep's back, that the natural oil of the w^ool, which is destroyed 
by the washing, may have time to be renewed, without which the wool feels 
and works harsh. The washing is done at spouts or pools, prepared for the 
purpose, and the other flocks are kept on clean pastures till sheared. As 
the proper preparation of an article for market is justly considered of the 
next importance to a good article, I will describe this process minutely, as 
practised for the northern market. The shearing is done on a clean floor, 
and each fleece is kept unbroken. When sheared, it is rolled outside in, 
until it is reduced to a lump about ten inches each way, and then tied with 
strings in two places. For packing the wool, a bag is used nearly as large 
as our cotton bags, which, after sewing to a hoop at top, they hang through 
a hole in an upper floor, a little less in diameter than the hoop ; here the 
fleeces are packed down by the foot, the weight of an ordinary sized man 
being a sufficient pressure. Thus finished, the wool is ready for a northern 
or European market. Manufacturers will not give full price for wool unless 
the fleeces are unbroken ; because, before manufacturing, they consider it 
necessary to have each fleece divided into five qualities, which they cannot 
do if the wool of different fleeces is emptied together. 

Different modes of summer management are followed in different coun- 
tries. The one followed in Australia, as described by Mr. Randall, is not 
only less troublesome, but would be better suited to our mountain region. 
There they roam over the, plains, under charge of a shepherd, in flocks of 
three hundred to one thousand. Every night, some two or more of these 
flocks are penned together, during the entire year. Breeding promiscuously 
from the bucks that run with the flocks, allowing three or four to the hun- 
dred ewes. At the Cape of Good Hope, he says the same practice pre- 
vails ; and from both of these places the wool exported is equal, and in some 
instances superior in quality to the Merino. 

The statements here given, Mr. President, we have carefully considered, 
and believe to be true — and we submit them under the belief that if the im- 
portance of sheep husbandry was duly considered, especially by the districts 
lying north and contiguous to the mountains, much additional comfort and 
wealth might be added to that already delightful region. 

All which is respectfully submitted. 



R. F, SIMPSON. 



Note. — Since this report was read, I have been informed by Mr, Thomas ^ 
M. Sloan, that his avooI does not cost him more than five cents a pound — \ 
and by Mr. Morris, at Pickens C, H., that for care, shearing, &c,, of a j 
small flock of eight ewes, worth eight dollars, kept on Ocone mountain, be \ 
paid one-half of the spring clipping, equal to three-quarters of a pound per | 
head, and that from them he had, after pajnngall expenses, $3 GO, and eight ; 
lambs worth eight dollars — $11 60. And by Mr. Shepherd, a tenant on \ 



APPENDIX. 303 



Mr. J. O. Lewis's Tamosa estate, that in 1846 he took with him from Green- 
ville a few sheep, 

Among which were 4 ewes, worth .....--$4 00 

• They had 4 lambs, worth 4 00 

. Thinks he sheared 3 lbs. per head, but say 2, which is 8 lbs. at 20 cts. 1 60 — 5 60 
In 1848, from 8 sheared 14 lbs. wool at 20 cents, - - - 2 80 
And had 8 lambs, worth - - - - - - - 7 00 — 9 80 



$15 40 



Salt and shearing was the only expense. He had only offered to feed 
them once in the two years, and then they refused to taste corn shelled to 
them. 



H. AI^CRUM ON WOOL MATTRESSES. 

Ashley, Pike county. Mo. 

A sound man in one night of seven hours' sleep, generally perspires fifty 
ounces avoirdupois or four pounds troy weight ; we cannot wonder at that, 
since there are above three hundred thousand millions of pores in the body 
of a middle-sized man, and that in the last hours of sleep one perspires 
most ; hence the impropriety and the weakness of lying too long in a soft 
bed, and the necessity of lying on a comparatively hard elastic bed, such as a 
wool mattress. In France, wool mattresses are generally adopted, conse- 
quently you never meet with a bad bed there. I have travelled all over 
France, and never met with a bad bed, and a very recent intelligent Ameri- 
can traveller of great observation, mentions, on his removal from England 
to France, that he found the French beds dehcious, because the beds are 
wool mattresses. 

Alode of Making a Wool Mattress. — The first thing to constitute a good 
healthy bed is, that it must be absolutely flat, therefore all bedsteads should 
have Avooden laths instead of sacking, which always gives and forms a hol- 
low ; the wool is carded by hand, and all knots and extraneous matter taken 
out ; the great point is to make it thick enough. The best bed I slept in, 
in my life, had sixty pounds of wool in it, but the bed was a very large extra 
size ; half that quantity will make a small bed, but if you wish to lie 
luxuriously, yet hard, do not stint the wool, that makes all this dilterence ; 
it lasts for ever — the covering is washed once a year; the wool is carded, 
and a few pounds of wool added, and the bed is sweet and new. However 
luxuriously he may be, let any gentleman have a good wool mattress made, 
and let him ride forty or fifty miles and thoroughly fatigue himself, he will 
then know the value of such a bed. My object is also to increase the home 
consumption of our wool. There are twenty odd millions in the United 
States ; say five to each family, four miUions ; say three beds to each 
family, taking the whole population, twelve millions ; say thirty pounds of 
wool to each bed, three hundred and sixty millions of pounds of wool ; say 
thirty-four millions of sheep in the United States, say eighty million pounds 
of wool; this will consume more than four years' clip of our wool. This 
ought to be promulgated to increase the consumption of our wool, and such 
wool as cannot be sold abroad. Independent of the benefit to all in theii 
health, who adopt wool mattresses on account of their cleanliness and dura- 
bility, in the end, they are cheaper than any other bedding. 

Every thing that increases the home consumption of our wool is of na- 
tional importance, as is every thing that will promote the general health of 



304 APPENDIX. 



our people. In this changeable and rigorous climate in winter, if all were ' 
to wear flannel, particularly narrow-chested and delicate females, it would 
be of the greatest benefit to their health, and save them inany a fit of sick- ; 
ness. When we consider how cheap the English sell their Welsh flan- :' 
nel, it ought to stimulate our manufacturers ; I must, however, observe, that 'i 
I never purchased any flannel in the United States equal to the real Welsh I 
flannel, or that did not shrink, or that wore near so long as the English i 
flannel. The Enghsh flannel has a nap on both sides, which renders it J' 
warm and soft, and it washes soft to the last. The United States flannel J; 
that 1 have used washes harsh, and the wear is not near so agreeable as | 
real Welsh flannel, but surely all these difiiculties can be overcome by our jj 
people, and they can make as good flannel as the best Welsh flannel. i. 

It is well known that woollen clothes, such as flannels, worn next the skin, . 
promote insensible perspiration. May not this arise principally from the j^ 
strong attraction which subsists between wool and the watery vapor which is 
continually issuing from the human body ? That it does not depend entirely 
on the warmth of that covering is clear, because one degree of warmth produced 
by wearing more clothing of a different kind does not produce the same efllict. 
The perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a covering of flannel, 
it is immediately distributed through the whole thickness of that substance, 
and by this means exposed by a very large surface to be carried off" by the 
atmosphere, and the loss of the watery vapor which the flannel sustains on 
the one side by evaporation, being immediately restored from the other in 
consequence of the strong attraction between the flannel and this vapor, the 
pores of the skin are disencumbered, and they are continually surrounded 
with a dry and salubrious atmosphere. It is astonishing that the custom 
of wearing flannel next the skin should not have prevailed more universally ; 
it is certain it would prevent a number of diseases, and there certainly is no 
greater luxury than the comfortable sensation which arises from wearing it, 
after one is accustomed to it. It is a mistaken notion that it is too warm 
clothing for summer ; it may be worn in the hottest climates, at all seasons 
of the year, without the least inconvenience arising from wearing it.* It is 
the warm-bath of a perspiration confined by a linen shirt, wet with sweat, 
which renders the summer heats of southern climates so insupportable ; but 
flannel promotes perspiration and favors its evaporation, and evaporation, 
as it is well known, produces positive cold. I can vouch for the truth of 
every word of this. I wear the same kind of flannel all summer as I do in 
winter with sleeves ; when I take extra exercise and perspire freely, my 
body and flesh is always cool and comfortable, and in part I owe it to wear- 
ing flannel that I have never had either fever or ague in this western coun- 
try, which is full of it. All this may appear trivial, and sanitary rules are 
disregarded, but it is all of the utmost importance and to all. Say fifteen 
millions of our people wear flannel next their skin, and three flannel waist- 
coats to each, that is forty-five millions of waistcoats, at two yards each, 
(not enough with sleeves as they ought to be made,) ninety milUons of yards 
of flannels in waistcoats only. Old people, delicate women and children, 
and above all, consumptive people, ought all to wear flannel drawers as well 
as a flannel waistcoat ; if this was adopted, the great sickness that prevails 
in the United States would be much diminished. Men drink spirituous 
liquors to increase the animal heat, and feel that glow that is called com- 
fortable. Let them wear flannel next their skin instead, and keep the body 
warm and the head cooL ' 

* The firemen in steamboats could not exist if they wore linen instead of flannel shirts. The pleasant- 
est of ail mattresses is one made of a mixture of wool and hair. [Eds. Plough, Loom, and Anvil.J 



INDEX. 



A. 

Abdomen, the. Page 228. 

contents of the, 228—233. 
Abomasum, cut of the, 228. 

structure and functions of the, 229. 
Acarus of scab, cut of the, 259. 

description and habits of the, 258 — 259. 

how produced, 258. 
Acetate of copper. See Verdigris. 
Afghanistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry, 118. 
Africa, (exclusive of Cape of Good Hope,) 
sheep of, 151. 

exports of wool to England from, 110. 

exports of wool to U. S. in 1846, 124. 

quality of wool exported from, 90. 
Age, determined by the teeth, 237, 238. 

names indicative of the, 237. 

length of, in different breeds, 156, 157. 
Agrostis (stricta) vulgaris. See Herds-grass. 
Air-cells, description of the, 235. 
Alabama, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 

value of woollen goods manufactured in, 
17. 

price of land in, 60. 

adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep 
husbandry, 47. 
Ale, the use of, in sheep medicine, 274. 
Allegheny mountains. See Apalachian moun- 
tains. 
Allspice, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Aloes, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Alum, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Anatomy of the sheep, 227, 238. 

how far necessary to be studied, 227. 

proper subjects for the study of, 227. 

directions for studying, 227, 228. 
Animals which destroy sheep in the South, 
64. 

in Australia, 65. 

at the Cape of Good Hope, 65. 

how guarded against, 65. 
Antimony, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Aorta, (he, 234. 

Apalachian mountains of U. S., where 
situated, 30. 

area occupied by, 30. 

geology and soils of, 30, 31, 43, 44, 46,49. 

altitude of, 43. 

grasses which flourish on, 43, 44, 47, 59, 
62. 

adaptation of, to pasturage, 44, 46, 47, 
59, 62. 

climate on, 44 — 51, 59. 

price of lands on, 44, 46 — 48, 59. 
Apoplexy, confounded with grub in the head, 
258. 

cause and treatment of, 251 — 253. 



Arachis. See Pindars. 

Arctium lappa, injurious to wool, 131. 

Argentine Republic. See Buenos Ayres. 

Arsenic, the use of, in sheep practice, 275. 

Arteries, the, 234. 

Artichokes, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Ashes, as a fertilizer in the South, 67. 

leached, 67. 

analysis of, 67. 
Asia. See names of countries of. 

exports of wool from to U. S. in 1846, 
1-24. 
Asiatic sheep. See Broad-tailed sheep. 
Asia Minor, adaptation of, to sheep hus- 
bandry, 118. 
Auricles of the heart, the, 234. 
Australia, introduction of sheep into, 25. 

introduction of Merinos into. 25. 

effect of climate of, on quality of wool, 
25—29. 

wools of, compared with Spanish, 26. 

wools of, compared with Saxon, 26. 

exports of wool from, 25. 

exports of wool brought down tol846, 294. 

how sheep are managed in, 26. 

sheep husbandry of, compared with 
Saxon, 26. 

general adaptation of, to sheep hus- 
bandry, 25, 119—121. 

soils and products of, 119. 

price of land and labor in, 119 — 121. 

climate of, 120. 

remarkable drouths of, 120. 

wild beasts in, destructive to sheep, 121. 

vast distance of, from European markets, 
121. 

prospect of the increase of wool in, 121. 

note giving statistics of wool trade of, 
brought down to 1846, 294. 
Austria, advamages of, for sheep husbandry, 
114,116. See Germany and Hungary, 

soils of, 114. 

climate of, 115. 

management of sheep in, 139. 

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 
124. 
Aquafortis, use of, in sheep practice, 276. 

B. 

Baden, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

114. 
Bakewell, Mr., the former of the New Lei- 
cester breed. 142. 
the conduct of, as a feeder, censured, 
143, 249. 
Barley, value of, in producing live weight, 
wool and tallow, 214. 
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. 
straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
a 305 



306 



INDEX. 



Barns for sheep, cut of. Page 205. 

ground-plan of, with sheds and yards, 
209. 
Barrack for hay, description and cut of, 209. 
Bavaria, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

114, 115. 
Beans, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Beet field, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

white Silesian, value of, as a fodder, 213. 
Belgium, exports of wool from, 110. 

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 124. 

late increase of manufactures in, 294. 
Beloochistan, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry, 118. 
Bermuda grass in the South, 38. 

its enormous product, 38. 

its adaptation to meadow or pasture, 38. 

its adaptation to barren sands, 38. 
Bichloride of mercury, use of, in sheep me- 
dicine, 275. 
Biflex canal, description of, 238. 

disease of, 261. 
Bile; account of the, 231. 
Biliary duct, description of the, 231. 
Bladder, the, 233. 
Blain, unusual in U. S., 222. 
Blankets for slaves, description of, 87, 90. 

cost of manufacturing, 87, 90 — 92. 
Bleeding, place for, 273, 274. 

rules for, 274. 

the quantity of blood to be abstracted in, 
274. 
Blood, the circulation of the, 235. 

the importance of purity of, in breeding, 
168, 171, 172. 
Blue grass, as the food of sheep, 212. 

in the North, 33. 

in the South, 37. 

on the Southern mountains, 44, 47, 48. 
Blue Ridge of mountains, location of, 30. 
Also, see Apalachians . 

geology of, 30. 

soils and products of, 31, 44 — 47, 59. 

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 
44—47, 59. 
Bone dust, as a manure in the South, 67. 
Bot. See Gmh i?i the Head. 
Box for feeding grain to sheep, cut of, 203. 

for dipping lambs, cut of, 192. 
Brain, description of the, 236. 
Brazil, a portion of, in wool zone, 105. 

exports of wool from, 110. 

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 
124. 
Breeding, principles of, 1S8 — 172. 

importance of selection in, 168, 190. 

in and in, effects of, 169. 

in and in, how avoided, 170, 172. 

crossing, when admissible in, 170. 

crossing, how conducted, 172. 

crossing, method of starting flocks in the 
South by, 170. 

crossing, importance of selecting good 
rams for, 172. 

register, how kept, 180. 
British America, exports of wool from, 110. 

to U. S. in 1846, 124. 
British West Indies, exports of wool from, 
110. 

to U. S. in 1846, 124. 
Broad-tailed sheep introduced into the U. S., 
151. 

wool and mutton of the, 151. 



Bronchial tubes, the, 235. 
Bronchitis, description and treatment of, 240. 
Bronchocele. See Goitre. 
Browse, feeding of, in winter, 217. 
Buckwheat, value of, in producing live 
weight, wool and tallow, 214. 
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
value of straw ot, as a fodder, 213. 
straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Buenos Ayres, advantages of, lor sheep hus- 
bandry, 105, 106. 
advantages of, for sheep husbandry, com- 
pared with U. S., 106. 
exports of wool from, 105. 
exports of wool from, to U. S., in 1846, 

124. 
pampas of, 105. 
inhabitants of, 105. 
Burdock, injurious to wool, 131. 



c. 



Cabbage, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

Cabul, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

118. 
Cachectic diseases, 254, 255. 
Camphor, use of in sheep medicine, 275. 
Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. 
Merinos introduced in, 26. 
Merinos, their increase in, 26. 
exports of wool from, 110. 
exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. 
wool of, compared with Australia, 26. 
advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 65, 

119. 
climate of 26, 119. 

climate of effect of on quality of wool, 26. 
face of the country in, 119. 
remarkable drouths in, 119. 
prevalence of wild beasts in, 119. 
Capillaries, functions of the, 234. 
Caraway seeds, the use of, in sheep medi- 
cine, 275. 
Cardiac opening, the, 231. 
Carrots, value of, as a fodder, 213. 
Castration of rams, 180. 
Cataract, the, 239. 

Catarrh, common, description and treatment 
of, 240. 
malignant epizootic, description of, 240 — 

247. 
malignant epizootic, ravages of, in U. S., 

240. 
malignant epizootic, treatment of, 245, 
246. 
Catechu, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Cattle doctor, the most dangerous of mala- 
dies, 226. 
Caul. See Omentum. 

Census of U. S., inaccurate in its wool re- 
turns, 18. 
Cerebellum, the, 236. 
Chalk, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Chelmsford plains, for slave cloihs, 86, 90. 

quality and cost of manufacturing, 90 — 93. 
Cheviot sheep, introduction of, into U. S., 
149. 
description of, 149, 150, 154. 
low quality of their wool, 151. 
Chili, portion of in the wool zone, 105. 
exports of wool from, 110. 
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 
124. 



INDEX. 



307 



China, advantages of, for sheep husbandry. 

Page 118. 
Chokmg, treatment of, 273. 
Chyle, account of the, 231. 
Climate, not controlled by latitude, 104. 
of various countries compared, 104. 
range of, in which fine sheep are bred, 

17, 18. 
range of, in which wool can be most eco- 
nomically grown, 103, 104. 
of U. S., favorable to sheep, 18, 103, 104. 
effect of, on heaUh of sheep, 18, 103. 
effect of, on the amount of wool, 22. 
effect of, on the quahty of wool, 23, 
27—29. 
Clogging sheep, how done, 193. 
Clover, red, as the food of sheep, 212. 

value of, cut in different states, as a iod- 

der, 213. 
acclimation of, in Virgmia, 36. 
acclimation of, on the mountams oi Vir- 
ginia, 44, 47. 
acchmation of, south of Virginia, 44,4/. 
not indispensable, 44, 47. 
substitute for, as a fodder, and manuring 

crop, 39, 41. 
white, as the food of sheep, 212. 
flourishes on the southern mountains, 
45, 47. 
Coecum, cut of the, 232. 
Colic, symptoms and treatment of, 253. 
Cold storms, dangerous effects ot, alter shear- 
ing, 191. 
Colombia, exports of wool from, 110. 
Colon, cut of the, 232. 
Cobza, value of, as a fodder, 213. 
Copperas, sulphate of, use of, in sheep medi- 
cine, 275. 
Corn, Indian, as food for sheep, 216. 
value of, as a fodder, 213. 
blades of, as sheep fodder, 41, 212. 214. 
stalks of. as a sheep fodder, 41, 212,214. 
Corrosive subUmate, use of, in sheep medi- 
cine, 275. 
Cotswold sheep, origin of, 149. 

introduction of, into the U. S., 149. 
description of, 149. 
crosses of, with other breeds, 149. 
cut of, 148. 
Cotton, statistics of the crop of, 79. 
cost of growing, 79, 85. . , , 

cost of growing, compared with that ot 

growing wool, 85. 
should alternate with other crops, 78—83. 
aUernating of, with wool growing pro- 
posed, 81. 
rotations for such alternation proposed, 
83,84. , J .« 

more should be grown on less land, bO, 

85. 
seed of, as a food for sheep, 216. 
Crab grass, account of the, 37. 
Creeping panic grass. See Bermuda ^rass. 
Crimea, advantages of, for wool growing, 
117. 
Merinos introduced in, 117. 
Crook, uses of the, described, 196. 

cut of the, 196. 
Crossing breeds and varieties, object of, 170. 
effects of, 170 — 172. 

advantages of under some circumstances. 
162, 164, 170. 
Cud, loss of the, not a disease, 272, 
Cumberland grass. See Bermuda grass. 



Cumberland mountains described, 43. Also, 

see Apdlachians. 
the adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 

48. 
Curled kale, as food for sheep, 62. 

flourishes on southern mountains, 62 
Cynodon dactylou. .See Bermuda grass. 
Cynoglossum officinale, injurious to wool, 

174. See Hound' s-to7i^ue. 
Cystisis, unusual in TJ. S., 238. 



D. 



Dactylis glomerata. See Orchard grass. 
Dangerous rams, how managed, 193. 
Denmark, exports of wool from, 110. 
Depots for wool. See Wool Depots. 
Diaphragm, structure and functions of, 234. 
Diarrhoea, description and treatment of, 250, 
Digestion, the process of, 229 — 231. 
Digitalis, use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Digitaria sanguinalis, account of the, 37. 
Diseases, the classification of, adopted, 226. 
same causes do not produce the same,ia 

different countries, 220. 
popular superstitions concerning causes 

of, 220, 221. 
many of those of England not found in 

U. S., 221— 223, 238. 
difference in the type of, in England and 

U. S., 224. 
treatment of, in England and U. S. dif- 
ferent, 224. 
English treatment of, too expensive, 

224 225. 
EngHsh treatment requires too much 

skill for popular use, 225. 
English treatment, its pharmacopceia too 

extensive, 225. 
treatment of, by "cattle doctors dan- 
gerous, 226. 
better do too little for, than too much, 
226. ' , 

Dissection indispensable to learn nature and 
treatment of diseases, 227. 
amount of instruction necessary to per- 
form, 227. 
directions for, 227, 228. 
proper subjects for, 227. 
Division of flocks proper in summer, 193. 

necessary in winter, 199. 
Docking sheep, necessity for, 181. 

how performed, 181. 
Dogs, sheep. See Sheep doss. 

destruction of sheep in the South by. 64. 
legal enactments in relation to kilhng 

liheep bv, in New York, 64. 
methods of protecting sheep from, 65. 
Down sheep. See Southdowns. 
Dropsv, acute, unusual in U. S., 222. 
Drouths, the severe, which prevail in Aus- 
tralia and the Cape ot Good Hope, 
119, 120. 
Ductus choledochus. functions of the, 231. 
Duodenum, cut of the, 232. 
Dura mater, the. 236. 
Dutch West Indies, exports of wool trom, to 

U. S. in 1846, 124. 
Duties on wool in different nations, bee 

Tariffs. J ,. , 

Dysentery, difference between, and diarrncea, 
251. 
nature and treatment ol, 261. 



308 



INDEX. 



E. 

Ear, numbering sheep by notching. Page 179. 
Von Thaer's system of, 178, 179. 
cuts illustrating, 179. 
when done, 180. 
notcher, described, 180. 
holes in, to record age, 179. 
holes in, how made, &-c., 179. 
East Indies, increasing exports of wool from, 

110, 111. 
in what countries of the, wool is grown, 

118. 
Ellman, Mr. the great improver of the South- 
downs, 144. 
Emasculation of rams, how performed, 181. 
England, duties of, on imported wool, 106. 
table of imports of wool of, and from 

whence imported, every fifth year for 

thirty years, 110. 
imports of wool of, compared with other 

nations, 108. 
imports of, brought down to 1846, 294. 
vast increase of imports of wool of, in 

sixty-nine years, 123. 
subsequent increase in imports of, 294. 
exports of woollens from, 108. 
exports of wool from, 109. 
exports of wool from, to U. S., 110. 
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 

124. 
number of sheep in, 109. 
produce of wool in, 109. 
production of wool in, does not meet the 

home consumption, 109. 
general advantages of, for wool growing, 

sheep necessary to sustain tillage of, 71. 

sheep dogs of, 286. 
Enteritis, little known in U. S., 238. 
Epiglottis, description of the, 236. 
Epilepsy, little known in U. S., 253. 
Epsom salts, the use of, in sheep medicine, 

275. 
Erysipelatous scab, 261. 
Ethmoid bone, cut of the, 236. 
Ewes, proper age of, to begin breeding, 137. 

proper number to be put to one ram, 197. 

different methods of putting to ram, 198. 

feed and management of, during preg- 
nancy, 217. 

pregnant, should be watered separately, 
199. 
Eye, inflammation of the, how treated, 239. 



F. 



Fall feeding, a good preparation for winter, 

195. 
Febrile diseases, account of the, 238 — 251. 
Feeding sheep in yards with other stock im- 
proper, 210. 
Felting property in wool accounted for, 137. 
Fences, poor ones teach sheep to jump, 194. 
Fever, inflammatory, little known in U. S., 
238. 

malignant, little known in U. S., 238. 

typhus, little known in U. S., 238. 
Flaxseed. See Linseed. 
Fleece, evenness of, important, 167. 

how prepared for folding, 187. 

how folded, 187, 188. 



Fleece, cuts of table and trough for folding 
the, 187, 188. 

proper twine for tying, 188. 
cut of, properly done up, 188. 
Florida, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 

woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 
Fluke worm, cuts of the, 248. 

account of the, 247, 248. 
Fly, its attacks and their effects, 173, 192. 

how avoided, 173, 192. 
Fodders, table of nutritious equivalents of, 
213. 

increase in weight, wool and tallow, from 
using different kinds of, 214, 215. 

table of winter variations in, for sheep, 
211. 

table of, for ewes, a month prior to 
lambing, 212. 

for winter feed of breeding ewes, 217. 

amount consumed influenced by tempe- 
rature, 217, 218. 

cereal grains for store sheep, 215, 216. 

ruta bagas for store sheep, 215, 216. 

Indian corn to be fed with care, 216. 

regularity in giving, very important, 217. 
Folding, how done in England, 72. 

objects of, in England, 72. 

inexpedient in U. S., 73. 
Folding of fleeces. See Fleece. 
Food. See Grasses and Fodders. 
Foot rot. See Hoof-ail. 
Fouls, cause and treatment of, 270. 
Foxglove. See Digitalis. 
Fractures, treatment of, 273. 
France, area of, 111. 

population of. 111. 

number of sheep in, 111. 

exports of wool from, 110. 

exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. 

exports of woollens from, 108. 

late increase in manufactures of, 111,296. 

imports of wool of, 108. 

duties of, on imported wool, 106. 

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 111. 

soil and products of. 111. 
French Merinos, account of, 133. 

cut of wool of, 135. 

quality of wool of, compared with Spa- 
nish and American families, 135, 136. 

weight of fleeces of, 133. 
French sheep dogs, 285. 
Frontal bone, cut of section of, 236. 
Frontal sinuses, cut of, 236. 

locality of the bot or grub in the head, 
256. 



G. 



Gad-fly of the sheep. See CEsfrus ovis. 
Gall bladder, account of the, 233. 
Garget, description and treatment of, 251, 
Gastritis, little known in U. S., 238. 
Generative organs, the, 233. 
Gentian, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Georgia, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 



INDEX. 



809 



Georgia, woollen goods manufactured in. 
Page 17. 
advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 42, 

59, 60. 
price of land in, 60. 

adaptation of mountain lands of, to sheep 
husbandry, 47. 
Germany, area of, 114. 
population of, 114. 
lace of the country in, 114. 
soils of, 114. 
climate of, 115. 
land tenures in, 115. 

system of sheep husbandry in, 115, 139. 
method of managing sheep in, 139. 
circumstances under which the wool of, 

is grown in, 115, 116. 
export of wool from, 110, 114. 
export of woollens from, 108. 
late increase in woollen manufactures of, 

296. 
general advantages of, for woo! growing, 

114—116. 
general advantages of, compared with 

U. S., 116, 
general advantages of, Mr. Grove's 
opinion, 116. 
Gestation, period of, 197. 
Gibraltar, exports of wool from, 110. 
exports of, to U. S. in 1846, 124. 
Ginger, the use of, in sheep medicine, 275. 
Glands, the parotid, 236. 
the thyroid, 236. 
the thyroid, diseases of, 270. 
the salivary, 236. 
Glottis, account of the, 236. 
Goggles. See Hydatid in the hrain. 
Goitre, account of the, 270, 271. 
Grain, policy of feeding to store sheep in 
winter, 215. 
best kinds of, for winter feed, 216. 
equivalents of, in nutriment, 213. 
effects of different kinds of, in producing 
wool, tallow and muscle, 214. 
Grain box for sheep, cut and description of, 

203. 
Grasses, natural ones of the South, 36 — 39, 
44, 45, 47—49, 58, 59. 
varieties of, which should be tried in the 

South, 33, 35—38. 
best acclimated ones of the South, 33, 

36—38. 
manner of forming swards of, in the 
South, 73—75. 
Great Bucharia, wool trade of, 118. 
Greece, exports of wool from, 110, 114. (In 
Table on page 110 it is called Morea.) 
advantages of, for sheep husbandry. See 
Remarks on Turkey, 104, 114. 
Grub in the head, description of the, 256, 
257. 
the larva of the CEstrus ovis, 257. 
cuts and description of the CEstrus, 256. 
time CEstrus deposits its eggs, 256. 
locality and habits of the larva, 256, 

257. 
cuts and description of the larva, 257. 
cut and description of the chrysalis, 257. 
do the larva produce disease in the sheep ? 

257, 258. 
opinions of eminent veterinarians in rela- 
tion to, 258. 
method of preventing and expelling the 
larva, 258, 



Guano, as a manure in the South, 67. 
Guatemala, exports of wool from, 110. 
Guernsey and Man, exports of wool from, 

lib. 
Gullet, obstructions of, how treated, 273. 
Gypsum as a fertilizer in the South, 67. 

H. 

Handling sheep, directions for, 174. 
Hay, different value of different qualities of, 
as fodder, 213. 
comparative value of, in producing live 

weight, wool, and tallow, 214. 
nitrogen in, 214. 
Hay holders for winter foddering described, 

211. 
Hanse Towns, exports of wool from, to U. S. 

in 1846, 124. 
Head, for proper form of, see the descrip- 
tions of the several breeds, and prin- 
ciples of breeding, 
cut of the bones of the, 236. 
Heart, structure and functions of the, 234, 

235. 
Hedysarum onibrichis. See Sainfoin. 
Hepatization of the lungs, description of, 

239. 
Herds grass, character of, 33, 37. 

flourishes in South Carolina, 36, 59. 
flourishes on the mountains of North 

Carolina, 44. 
the soils adapted to, 37. 
Hindostan, wools exported from, 108. 
Holland, exports of wool from, 110. 

exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 

124. 
exports of woollens from, 108. 
Honeycomb, or second stomach. See Set'i- 

culum. 
Hooding dangerous rams, how done, 193. 
Hoof, periodical shortening of the, necessary, 
183. 
best time and method for cutting the, 

183. 
cut of toe-nippers for shortening the, 183. 
Hoof-ail, erroneous statements of English 
writers concerning, 262. 
author's experience with the, 262. 
consecutive symptoms of, 263. 
treatment of, 264 — 269. 
preparation of the foot for treatment in 

the different stages of, 265. 
common remedies for, 265, 266. 
common method of treating, ineffectual, 

264. 
effectual method of treating, 266, 267. 
efi'ectual method of treating, expense of, 

267. 
cheap method of keeping under, 267, 

268. 
cheap method of keeping under, cuts of 

arrangements for, 267, 268. 
evident contagiousness of, 269, 270. 
propagated by inoculation, 269, 270. 
is it propagated otherwise than by ino- 
culation ? 270. 
does not originate spontaneously in U. S., 

222, 223, 269. 
originates spontaneously in England 
223. 
Hoof-rot. See Hoof-ail. 
Hoove, cause and treatment of, 272, 273. 



310 



INDEX. 



Horns, objectionable. Page 166. 

method of shortening, 192. 

cause and treatment of maggots under 
the, 192. 
HoppHng sheep, how performed, 193. 
Hospital for feeble sheep, in winter, 199. 
Hound's-tongue, the burr of, injurious to 

wool, 174. 
Hungary, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 
115—117. 

advantages of, compared with those of 
other countries, 117. 

climate of, 115, 116. 

soils of, 116. 

land tenures in, 116. 

want of market facilities in, 116, 117. 

Prince Esterhazy's flock in, 116. 

sheep dogs of, 284. 
Hydatid in the brain, 254, 255. 

causes of, 254. 

prevalence in England of, 254. 

not very common in U. S., 254. 

barbarous popular method of treating, 
255. 

proper treatment of, 255. 



I. 



Ileum, cut of the, 232. 

Illinois, advantages on prairies of, for wool 
growing, 96 — 103. 
Saxon sheep introduced into south of, 27. 
rot prevails in south of, 222. 
In-and-in breeding, efi'ects of, 169. 
Independent Tartary, advantages of, for 

sheep husbandry, 118. 
Indiana, advantages of, for wool growing, 

96—103. 
Inflammation of the bladder. See Cystitis. 
of the brain. See Phreiiitis. 
of ihe eye. See Opthalmia. 
of the intestines. See Enteritis. 
of the larynx. See Laryngitis. 
of the lungs. See Pneumonia. 
of the liver. See Rot. 
of the stomach. See Gastritis. 
of the udder. See Garget. 
of the membrane lining the thorax. See 

Pleuritis. 
of the mucous membrane lining the 

bronchial tubes. See Bronchitis. 
of the mucous coat of the smaller intes- 
tines. See Diarrhoea. 
of the mucous coat cf the larger intes- 
tines. See Dysentery. 
of the mucous membrane lining the nasal 

passages. See Catarrh. 
of the cellular tissue of the tongue. See 
Blain. 
Intermaxillary bone, cut of the, 236. 
Intestines, cut of the, 232. 
Iodine, use of, in sheep medicine, 275, 276. 
Iowa, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

96—103. 
Italy, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 
113. 
exports of wool from, 110. 
exports of woollens from, 108. 
area of, 113. 
population of, 113. 
soil and climate of, 113. 
pasturage of, 113, 



J. 



Jejunum, cut of the, 232. 

John's-wort, bad effects of, on sheep, 271. 

bad effects of, how treated, 271, 272. ,„ 
Jugular vein, the best place for bleeding, 

274. 
June grass. See Blue grass. 

K. 

Kalmia angustiflora, poisonous to sheep, 271. 

antidotes for, 271. 
Kentucky, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 

woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 

fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. 

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 27, 
47, 48. 

adaptation of mountain lands of, for 
sheep husbandry, 47, 48. 
Kidneys, structure and functions of the, 233. 



L. 



Lacteals, the, 231. 

Lambs, how fed in winter, 215, 216. 

should be wintered separately, 199. 
Lambing, proper time for, 175. 

shelters necessary for, 175. 

assistance when to be rendered ewe in, 
175. 

care of the newly dropped lamb, 176. 

changing dams, how done, 177. 

irritation of the bag, how managed, 177. 

the convenience of pens in, 177. 

pinning of young lambs after, 177. 
Lard, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Larynx described, 235. 
Laryngitis, little known in U. S., 238. 
Laurel, low, poisonous to sheep, 271. 
Leg, treatment of, when fractured, 273. 
Leicester sheep, origin of the, 142. 

cut of the, 142. 

cut of the microscopic appearance of 
wool of, 136. 

general description of, 143, 154. 

characters of as breeders, 143. 

degree of hardiness of, 143. 

points aimed at by breeders of, 144. 

introduction of, into U. S., 144. 
Lentils, value of, as a fodder, 218. 

straw of, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Lice, method of destroying, 192. 
Lime, chloride of, use of, in sheep medicine, 
276. 

carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice, 
276. 

as a fertilizer in the South, 67 — 70. 

as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68. 

as a fertilizer, Johnson's opinions con- 
cerning, 68. 

as a fertilizer. Von Thaer's opinion con- 
cerning, 68. 

as a fertilizer, Petzholdt's opinion con- 
cerning, 69. 



INDEX. 



311 



Lime, as a fertilizer, Chaptal's opinion con- 
cerning. Page 69. 
Linseed, use of, to guard the end of a pro- 
bang. See Choking. 

caked, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

oil, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Little Bucharia, exports of wool from, 118. 
Liver, structure and functions of the, 232, 
233. 

diseases of the. See Rot. 
Lolium perenne. See Rye grass. 
Lombardy, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry, 113. 
Long wool, the goods in which it is em- 
ployed, 143, 151. 

the sheep which produce it, 143, 149, 
151. 

market for, in U. S., 154. 
Loss of cud, not a disease, 272. 
Louisiana, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 

woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 

price of land in, 60. 
Lucern, unsuccessful in the North, 33. 

succeeds on the southern mountains, 47. 

value of, as a fodder, 213. 

fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Lunar caustic, use of, in sheep practice, 276. 
Lungs, structure and functions of the, 235. 

hepatization of the, described, 239. 

diseases of the, 239. 240. 
Lupins, white, as a green manuring crop in 

the South, 74. 
Lupinus albus. See Lupins. 
Lymph, the, 231. 
Lymphatics, the, 231. 



M. 



Madia, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

Maggots on sheep, cause and treatment of, 

192. 
Malta, exports of wool from, 110. 
Man, Isle of. See Guernsey and Man. 
Mangel wurzel, value of, in producing live 
weight, wool, and tallow, 214. 
percent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
Maniplus, structure and functions of the, 229. 

cut of the, 228. 
Manufactures of wool. See Woollen Manu- 
factures. 
Manufactories. See Woollen Factories. 
Manufacturers of wool, American, their suc- 
cess identified with that of the wool 
growers, 161. 
have not properly discriminated in the 
prices of different qualities of wool. 
160. 
combinations of, to lower prices of wool, 
161. 
Manures, table of comparative values of. 40. 
the available ones in the South, 67 — 76. 
green, use and economy of, 70, 72, 74, 75. 
the cheapest, for the South, 73 — 75. 
where applied in a proper rotation of 
crops, 84. 
Manyfolds. See Maniplns. 
Marking sheep, the brand for, 191. 
suitable pigment for, 191. 
how and when done, 191. 



Marking sheep, on the ears, how done, 179. 
Marl, as a fertilizer. South, 67—70. 

as a fertilizer, when valuable, 68, 70. 

as a fertilizer, expensiveness of, 70. 

Meadow fox-tail grass, flourishes on the 

southern mountains, 47. 
Medicago sativa. See Lucern. 
Medicines, list of, for sheep, 274—277. 

directions for administering into the sto- 
mach, 273. 
Mercury, preparations of, in sheep medicine, 

275, 276. 
Merinos, introduction into the U. S., 132. 
their gradual spread in the U. S., 132. 
causes of their subsequent decrease in 

U. S., 1.58, 159. 
their rapid restoration to public favor in 

U. S., 160, 161. 
Spanish families of, 132. 
Spanish, amount and quality of wool 

yielded by, 133, 135. 
Spanish, cut of wool of, 135, 137. 
French family of, described, 133. 
French, amount and quality of wool 

yielded by, 133, 135. 
French, cut of wool of, 135. 
American families of, described, 133, 

134. 
American, amount and quality of wool 

yielded by, 55, 134—137. 
American, cuts of wool of, 135, 136. 
American, cut of ram of, 131. 
American, cut of ewe of, 134. 
American, hardness of, 137. 
American, profits of a premium flock of, 

55. 
American, prices of wool of, 55. 
range of climate endured by, 137. 
countries successfully introduced in, 17, 

18. 
consumption of food by, compared with 

other breeds, 137. 
as breeders and nurses, compared with 

other breeds, 137. 
proportion of wool to amount of food 

consumed, compared with the English 

breeds, l.")6. 
as mutton sheep, compared with English 

breeds, 158. 
for production of fine wool, compared 

with Saxons, 163, 164. 
crosses with Saxons, 134, 138, 141, 164. 
crosses witli^ native sheep, 164. 
crosses with Southdowns. 170, 171. 
crosses with Leicesters, 171. 
the best variety of sheep for the South, 

163, 165—168. 
proper size of, 165. 
proper form of, 166. 
proper weight of fleece of, 165. 
proper length and density of wool of, 

167. 
proper evenness of wool of, 167. 
proper style of wool of, 168. 
proper amount of gum on wool of, 167. 
proper quality of skin of, 166. 
points to be avoided in, 168. 
Mesentery, cut of the, 233. 
Mesenteric glands, the, 231. 
Mexico, adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 

105. 
exports of wool from, 110. 
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 

124, 



312 



INDEX. 



Mexico, sheep dogs of. Page 284 — 286. 
Microscopic views of wool, 135 — 137, 145. 
Middle wools. See Southdown wool. 
Midriff. See Diaphragm. 
Millet, productiveness of. South, 37, 38. 

straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211, 

212. 
value of, as a fodder, 213. 
Milt. See Spleen. 
Miscellaneous diseases, 271 — 273. 
Mississippi, population of, 17. 
number of sheep in, 17. 
pounds of wool grown in, 17. 
average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 
woollen factories in, 17. 
woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 
fine wooled sheep bred in, 27. 
latitude, &c., of, compared with Aus- 
tralian, 27. 
Missouri Territory, advantages of, for sheep 

husbandry, 96—103. 
Modena, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

113. 
Mogadore wool, 90. 
Morea, exports of wool fi-om, 110. See 

Greece. 
Morocco. See Africa. 
Mountains of the South. See Mouvtain 

zone, under head of Southern States. 
Mud, as a fertilizer. See Swamp mud. 
Muriate of soda. See Salt. 
Muriatic acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Mutton, economicul food for slaves, 56, 57. 
its effects on the system compared with 

other meals, 56. 
the quality of, in different breeds of 
sheep, 153, 154, 158. Also, see the 
diflerent breeds, 
sheep, the English. See Soiithdowns, 

Leicester s, and Colswohh. 
sheep, where they constitute the most 

profitable variety, 153, 154. 
sheep, comparison between varieties of, 

153, 154. 
sheep, unadapted to most parts of the 

South, 154, 155. 
sheep, less profitable in the South than 
Merinos, 158. 

N. 

Naples, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

113. 
Nasal bones, cut of the, 236. 
Native sheep (so called) of the U. S., origin 
of, 130. 
general characteristics of, 131. 
crosses with other breeds, 131, 164. 
policy of grading up with the Merino in 

the South, 164, 170. 
selection of, to cross with Merinos, 170. 
do not cross successfully with Saxons, 
164. 
Nerves, the, 236. 
Nervous diseases, the, 251. 
New England, advantages of, for wool 

growing, 95. 
New Jersey, advantages of, for wool grow- 
ing, 95. 
New Leicester sheep. See Leicester. 
New Oxfordshire sheep. See Coiswolds. 
New South Wales. See Australia. 
New York, population of, 17. 



New York, sheep introduced in by the Dutch 
colonists, 130. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 

woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 

grass lands of, how managed, 32. 

price of grazing lands in, 53. 

price of sheep in, 53. 

cost of producing wool per pound in, 61. 

profits of wool growing in, 53 — 55. 
Nitrate of silver. See Lunar caustic. 
Nitrate of potash, use of, in sheep medicine, 

276. 
Nitre. See Nitrate of potash. 
Nitric acid, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
North Carolina, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

amount of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21, 

woollen factories in, 17. 

woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 

price of land in, 44, 60. 

adaptation of mountain lands of, to 
sheep husbandry, 44 — 46. 
Norway, exports of wool from, 110. 

climate and flora of, 104, 105. 
Numbering sheep, advantages of, 178. See 
Registering. 

Von Thaer's system of, 179. 

cuts illustrating, 179. 



o. 



Oats, value of, in producing live weight, 
wool, and tallow, 214. 
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
value of straw of, as a fodder, 213. 
straw of, fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Odessa, exports of wool from, 117. 
ffisophagus, course of the, 234 — 236. 
entrance of into stomach, 228, 229. 
obstructions of the, how treated, 273. 
(Esophagean canal, structure and functions of 

the. 229. 
CEstrus ovis, description of, 256. 
natural history of, 256, 257. 
cuts of 256. 
Ohio, advantages of, for wool growing, 95. 
Omentum, description of the, 228. 
One crop system of the South, 81. 

exhaustion of land consequent on the, 

81, 82. 
exhaustion of land consequent on the, 
De Candolle's, Macaire's, Mirbel's, 
Braconnet's and Gyde's theories and 
experiments on, 81. 
Opium, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Opthalmia, treatment of the, 239. 
Orchard grass, unsuccessful in New York, 
33. 
flourishes on the southern mountains, 62. 
Orkney, wool of 90. 
Otter sheep of the U. S., 129. 
Ovaries, the, 233. 



P. 



Palsy, nature and treatment of, 253. 
Pancreas, structure and functions of the, 232, 
Panicum milliaceum. See Millet. 



INDEX, 



313 



Panicum sanguinale. See Crah grass. 
Papal States, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry. Page 113. 
Parietal bone, cut of a section of, 236. 
Parma, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

113. 
Parotid glands, the, 236. 
Parturition. See Lambing. 
Pastures, the natural ones of the South, 33, 
34, 36, 44—48, 59, 60. 
how formed on sterile lands, 73 — 75. 
Patagonia, portion of, in wool zone, 105. 
Paunch. See Rumen. 
Peas of the South, 39. 

substitute for clover in the South, 39,41. 
value of, as a fodder, 39, 41, 213, 214. 
value of, in the production of live weight, 

wool, and tallow, 214. 
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
value of, as a green manuring crop, 74, 

75. 
what time plowed under for green ma- 
nure, 75. 
haulm of, valuable as a fodder, 39, 213, 

214. 
haulm of, valuable as a manure, 40. 
chemical analysis of, 39. 
Pedigree, only, value of, 171. 
Pelt-rot, description and treatment of, 255. 
Pens for the lambing season, how con- 
structed, 177. 
Pennsylvania, adaptation of, to sheep hus- 
bandry, 95. 
Pepper, black, use of, in sheep medicine, 

276. 
Pericardium, the, 234. 
Persia, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 

lai, 118. 
Peru, exports of wool from, 110. 

exports of wool to U. S. in 1846, 124. 
Pharynx, the, 235, 236. 
Phleum pratense. See Timothy. 
Phrenitis, rare in U. S., 253. 
Pia mater, the, 236. 

Pimento, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Pindars, value of, as a fodder, 213. 
Pinning, fatal to Iambs, how managed, 177. 
Pleura, the, 234. 

Pleuritis, httle known in U. S., 238. 
Pleurisy. See Pleuritis. 
Pneumonia, nature and treatment of, 239, 

240. 
Poa pratensis. See Blue grass. 
Poisonous plants to sheep, 271. 
Portugal, exports of wool from, 110. 
Potatoes, Irish, as a winter feed for sheep, 
41,213. 
value of, in the production of live weight, 

wool, and tallow, 214. 
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
sweet, winter feed of sheep, 41. 
Poudrettc, as a manure, South, 67. 
Prairies of the Western States described, 
95—107. 
advantages on the, for wool growing, 

95—107. 
natural grasses of the, 96 — 99. 
natural grasses, succulent during but a 

short season, 96, 97. 
natural grasses, rapidly exterminated, 96. 
natural grasses, will not alone support 

sheep, 96. 
natural grasses, make poor hay for 
sheep, 98. 

2R 



Prairies of the Western States will not pro- 
duce winter pasturage, 98. 
time of winter foddering necessary on, 

97. 
cost of sheep husbandry on, compared 

with Eastern States, 99. 
cost of fuel, fences and buildings on, 99, 

100. 
difficulties in the way of the shepherd 

system on, 100, 101. 
scarcity of water on, 101. 
climate of, variable and excessive, 102, 

103. 
climate of, compared with Eastern 

States, 102. 
climate of, compared with Southern 

States, 102, 103. 
climate of, unfavorable to fine wooled 
sheep, 103. 
Pregnant ewes, how managed. See Ewes. 
Prussia, for general description of, see Ger- 
many, 114 — 116. 
exports of wool from, 110. 
exports of woollens from, 108. 
advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 116. 
climate of, 104, 115. 
management of sheep in, 139. 
Pulse, place for feeling the, 274. 

natural rapidity of, 274. 
Purging. See Diarrhoea. 
Pylorus, the, 228, 231. 



R. 



Rabies, uncommon in U. S., 253. 
Racks, for feeding sheep, 200 — 203. 
box, cut and description of, 200. 
hole, cut and description of, 200. 
sparred, cut and description of, 201. 
hopper, cut and description of, 202. 
Rams, method of castrating, 180, 181. 
dangerous ones, how managed, 193. 
importance of careful selecFion in, 172. 
objections to several running in the same 

flock of ewes, 197. 
necessity of selecting ewes in reference 

to quality of, 197. 
proper age of, to put to ewes, 197. 
different methods of putting to ewes, 

198. 
how fed when running with ewes, 199. 
time allowed to run with ewes, 199. 
number of ewes those of difi'erent ages 

will serve, 197. 
not allowed to run with ewes in sum- 
mer, 193. 
Rambouillet Merino. See French family of, 

under head of Merinos. 
Rape, as food for sheep, 62. 

flourishes on southern mountains, 62. 
Rectum, the, 232. 
Red-top. See Herds grass. 
Red water. See Dropsy, acute. 
Registering sheep, Mr. Grove's and author's 
method, 180. 
importance of 178. 
Respiratory passages, the, 235. 
Respiration, how produced, 234. 
Resting lands, meaning of the term in agri- 
culture, 82. 
theory of, 82. 
inexpediency of. 82. 
Reticulum, description of the, 228. 



314 



INDEX. 



Reticulum, functions of the. Page 230. 

Rice, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

Roots, for winter feed of sheep, 213, 214, 

216. 
Root troughs, cut of, 203. 
Rot, not known in most parts of U. S., 222. 
other diseases mistaken for, 222. 
has appeared in Tennessee and Illinois, 

222. 
prevalence of, in Europe, 221, 222. 
causes assigned for the, 223, 248, 249. 
symptoms of the, 247. 
post-mortem appearances of, 247. 
cuts of the fluke-worm of 248. 
suddenness with which it is engendered. 

249. 
English custom of selling rotted sheep 

to the butcher, 249. 
treatment of the, 249, 250. 
Rotation in crops, necessity of, 81, 82. 
necessity of, in the South, 78—83. 
a system of, recommended for the South, 
83—85. 
Rumen, structure of the, 228. 
cut of the, 228. 
functions of the, 229. 
unnatural distension of the. See Hoove. 
Rumination, the process of, 230. 
Russia, climate of, 104, 117, 118. 
soil and products of 117. 
face of the country in, 117. 
the south of, advantages of, for sheep 

husbandry, 117. 
the south of, compared with Hungary, 

117. 
the south of, compared with prairies of 

the U. S., 117. 
Merinos introduced in, in 1802, 117. 
Merinos, rapid increase of, in, 117. 
exports of wool from, 110, 117. 
exports of wool to U. S. in 1826, 124. 
Ruta bagas, as sheep feed, 213, 216. 
Rye, for winter pasturage in the South, 40, 
58. 
value of grain of in producing live 

weight, wool, and tallow, 214. 
per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 
dry straw of, value of, in different states, 

as a fodder, 213. 
fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Rye grass, unsuccessful in New York, 33. 
flourishes on southern mountains, 47,62. 



s. 



Sacking wool, how performed, 189. 

proper sacks for, 189. 
Salt, necessary for sheep in summer, 194. 

necessary for sheep in winter, 218. 

eft'ect, in conjunction with fodders, in in- 
creasing live weight, wool, and tallow, 
214. 

as a medicine, 276. 

box, for sailing sheep, cut of, 194. 
Saltpetre, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Sainfoin, 33. 

fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 
Sardinia, advantages of, tor sheep husbandry, 

113. 
Saxon sheep, origin of, 138. 

cut of ram. 138. 

varieties of 139. 

microscopic appearance of wool of, 136. 



Saxon sheep, German management of, 116, 
139. 
introduction of info U. S., 140, 141. 
deterioration of blood of, in U. S., 141. 
quantity and quality of wool of, in U. S., 

141. 
wool of in U. S., compared with parent 

stock, 141, 142. 
general description of, 141. 
defects of as breeders and nurses, 139, 

141. 
defects of, in hardiness, 139, 141. 
how far adapted to climate in northern 

states, 162. 
superseded the Merinos for a time in 

U. S., 159. 
rapid decrease of, in the U. S., 160. 
dislike to, among northern farmers, 162. 
compared with Merinos for growing fine 

wool, 163. 
improved by a cross with Merinos, 136, 

137, 141. 
crosses of with native sheep, 141, 164. 
Saxony, soils of 114. 
climate of 104, 115. 
face of the country in, 114. 
management of sheep in, 116. 
Scab, description of, 258. 

cuts of the acarus producing it, 259. 
habits of the acarus, 258. 
circumstances under which the acarus 

makes its attacks, 258. 
short-wooled sheep comparatively ex- 
empt from, 259. 
contagiousness of 259. 
prevalence of, in England, 259. 
treatment of 260, 261. 
Scotland, (included, in most respects, in de- 
scription of England.) 
exports of wool from, to U. S. in 1846, 

124. 
mountains of, only kept in pasture by 
sheep, 71. 
Scours. See Diarrhoea. 
Sedge grass, eaten by sheep, 49. 
Selection, annual necessity of, in flocks, 190. 
rules for, 190. 

form of a register to expedite, 190. 
Shade, necessity of in sheep pasture, 195. 
Shearing, proper time of 184. 

time between, and washing, 184. 
cut of arrangements for, 1S4. 
rules and regulations for, 185, 186. 
of lambs, objected to, 186. 
of sheep, semi-annually, objected to, 
186. 
Sheds for sheep, cuts of, 205, 208. 

the cheapest, 208. 
Shelter for sheep in winter. See Sheds, 

Stills, &.c. 
Sheep, bred in all climates, 17. 

number of in the southern states and in 

New York, 17. 
indispensable for support of poor lands, 

71. 
indispensable to support tillage in Eng- 
land, 71, 72. 
system of sustaining tillage lands by, in 

England, 71, 72. 
poor lands improved by, in northern 

states, 72. 
system of improving poor lands by, in 

the South, 73 — 76. 
better manurers than other stock, 71, 72. 



INDEX. 



315 



Sheep, improve the character of the vegeta- 
tion. Page 57. 

extirpators of briers and shrubs, 57. 

small risk by death, in breeding, 57. 

impropriety of feeding, in yards with 
other stock, in winter, 210. 

comparison of breeds of, 153, 154, 163, 
164. 

comparison in respect to weight of fleece, 

154, 156, 157. 

comparison in quality of wool, 154. 
comparison in consumption of food, 154, 

156. 
comparison in proportion of wool to 

food consumed, 156. 
comparison in hardiness, 156, 157. 
comparison in longevity, 156, 157. 
comparison in mutton, 153, 154, 158. 
comparison in bearing hard stocking, 154, 

155, 156. 

comparison in profitableness in the South, 

156, 157. 

how they should be caught and other- 
wise handled, 174. 
washing of See Washing sheep. 
shearing of. See Shearing. 
(for other particulars of the management 

of, see the different heads.) 
cordial, how compounded, 250. 
dogs, of the ancients. 278, 279. 
dogs, of Spain, 280—284. 
dogs, of Spain, cut of, 281. 
dogs, of France, 286. 
dogs, of Hungary, 284. 
dogs, of England, 287. 
dogs, of England, cut of, 287. 
dogs, of Scotland, 288. 
dogs, of Scotland, cut of, 288. 
dogs, of Mexico, 284—286. 
dogs, of South America, 285. 
dogs, sheep must be familiarized with, 
288. 
Silesia, climate of, 104, 115. 
face of the country, 114. 
character of the soil, 114. 
Slave cloths, description, 85, 86, 89, 90. 
expense of imported, 85, 86, 89. 
actual first cost of, 90, 91. 
great profits of manufacturers of, 90, 91. 
should be manufactured in the southern 

states, 87. 
offers of northern manufacturers to fur- 
nish below present prices, 90, 91. 
cost of manufacturing as good or better 

plains in the north, 86. 
cost of manufacturing " at the halves," 

87. 
cost of manufacturing by hand on plan- 
tations, 89. 
Smith's Island sheep, 129. 
Smyrna wools, quality of, 90. 
Snuffles. See Catarrh. 
South America, portion of, in the wool zone, 
105. 
climate of, 104, 105. 
exports of wool from, 105. 
sheep husbandry in, 105. 
advantages of, for wool growing, 105, 

106. 
advantages of, compared with U. S., 

105, 106. 
pampas of, compared with prairies of 

U. S., 105. 
sheep dogs of, 285. 



I South America, for other particulars of, see 
Buenos Ayres, &,c. 
Southdown sheep, origin of, 144. 

cut of ram, 145. 

cut of ewe, 146. 

cut of wool viewed through microscope, 
145. 

general description of, 144, 145, 148, 154. 

value of, as a mutton sheep, 146, 147. 

weight and quality of fleeces of, 146. 

wool of, deficient in felting properties, 
145, 146. 

introduction into U. S., 147. 
South Carolina, population of, 17. 

number of sheep in, 17. 

pounds of wool grown in, 17. 

average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 

woollen factories in, 17. 

woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 

price of land in, 59, 60. 

neglect oi grass culture in, 31. 

hay imported into, 31. 

adaptation of soils of, to grass culture, 
31, 32, 34, 59, 80. 

adaptation of climate of, to grass culture, 
36. 

system of cropping in, 32, 79. 

system of cropping compared with New 
York, 32, 33. 

system of cropping, change in, recom- 
mended by legislature, 79, 80. 

system of cropping, utility of sheep 
husbandry in effecting such change in, 
85. 

cost of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. 

winter pasturage for sheep in, 58 — 60. 

adaptation of mountains of, to sheep 
pasture, 47, 59. 

present method of managing sheep in, 
59, 60. 

wolves in, 64. 
Southern States, what states included under 
this designation, 30. 

area of, 30, 94. 

natural features and geology of, 30, 31. 

quality of soils of, 30, 35, 42. 69. 

profits of sheep husbandry in, 58 — 62. 

profits of, compared with other hus- 
bandry in, 76, 77. 

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 77. 

advantages of, compared with other 
states and countries. See Wool grow- 
ing. 

advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- 
bandry, 62. 

advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- 
bandry, compared with Spain, 62 — 64. 

expense of keeping sheep in, 59, 60. 

expense per pound, of growing wool in, 
61. 

expense per pound, of growing wool in, 
compared with New York. 61. 

prejudice in, against sheep husbandry, 
and causes of, 72, 81. 

sheep exposed to dogs and wolves in. 64. 

compared with other countries in above 
particular, 65. 

prices of land in, 44, 46, 47, 60. 

amelioration of sterile and worn-out 
soils of, by sheep husbandry, 52, 
70—72. 

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils 
of, by sheep husbandry, more cheaply 
than by the available manures, 67. 



316 



INDEX. 



Southern States, amelioration of sterile and 
worn-out soils of, by sheep husbandry, 
more cheaply than by marl. Page 
68—70. 

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils 
by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- 
est in England, 71, 72. 

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils 
by sheep husbandry, considered cheap- 
est in the Northern States, 73. 

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils 
by sheep husbandry, why preferable 
to cattle husbandry, 71, 72. 

amelioration of sterile and worn-out soils 
by sheep husbandry, other means 
available in conjunction with, 74, 75. 

method of forming pastures on sterile 
soils of, 73, 74. 

effect of present one-crop husbandry in, 
78—81. 

sheep husbandry, basis of convertible 
husbandry in, 52, 78. 

convertible husbandry in, the strong ne- 
cessity for, 82. 

convertible husbandry in, recommended 
by a committee of the legislature of 
South Carolina, 79, 80. 

convertible husbandry in, recommended 
in Judge Seabrook's Report, 80. 

rotation of crops for, proposed, 83 — 85. 

should rear their own products for con- 
sumption, 76. 

should manufacture their own coarse 
woollens, 85—89. 

cost of manufacturing and importing 
these in, compared, 86—87, 89—93. 

cost of manufacturing slave cloths in, by 
hand, 88. 

divided into three zones, 30. 

the territorial limits of these zones, 30, 
31. 
tide-water zone of, 30. 

natural iieatures and geology of, 30. 

quality of the soil of, 30, 35. 69. 

compared with portions of New York, 
34. 

compared with Flanders, 35. 

how ameliorated, 35, 68. 

adaptation of, to the grasses, 31 — 38. 

adaptation of, to clover, 32, 36. 

adaptation of, to other fodders, 38 — 41. 

causes of failure in acclimating grasses 
in, 31, 32. 

proper grasses to introduce in, 37 — 40. 

natural grasses of, 36. 37. 

natural pastures of, 33, 34. 

number of sheep per acre which could 
find subsistence in, 58, 94. 

winter pasturage of, 31, 40, 58, 59. 

prices of land in, CO, 61. 

present system of cropping in, 32. 

climate of, adapted to growing fine wool, 
23—29. 
hilly zone of, 30. 

face of the country and geology of, 42. 

quality of the soil, 42. 

method of enriching soils of, 72. 

adaptation of, to grasses and grains, 27, 
42, 59. 

method of forming pastures in, 74. 

adaptation to sheep husbandry, 43, 59. 

price of lands in, 59, 61. 

climate of, 42, 59. 

quality of, west of the mountains, 51. 



Southern States, mountain zone of, 30. 

altitude of the Blue Ridge, Alleghany, 
and Cumberland chains, 43, 63. 

altitude of, compared with the moim, 
tains of Spain, 63. 

shape of the mountains of, 43. 

geology of, 43. 

character of the soil of, 44, 46, 49. 

large portions of, arable, 43. 

table lands on, 43. 

grasses of. 43, 44. 47, 59, 62. 

white and red clover, lucern, and rye 
grass flourish on, 47. 

timothy and orchard grass flourish on, 
44, 62. 

adaptation of, to pasturage, 44 — 47, 59, 
62. 

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry ,44 — 51, 
59. 

adaptation of, to Hon. T. L. CHngman's 
statements concerning, 44, 45. 

adaptation of, to Mr. H. M. Earle's state- 
ments concerning, 46. 

adaptation of, to Col. E. Colston's state- 
ments concerning, 47. 

adaptation of, to Hon. W. L. Goggins's 
statements concerning, 47. 

adaptation of, to Hon. A. Stevenson's 
statements concerning, 47. 

adaptation of, to Hon. A. Beatty's state- 
ments concerning, 47. 

adaptation of, to Mr. C. F. Kramer's 
statements concerning, 48. 

adaptation of, to Hon. R. F. Simpson's 
statements concerning, 59. 

adaptation of, to Mr. N. Murdoch's 
statements concerning, 62. 

winter pasturage on, 47 — 49, 59. 

adaptation of, to turnips and other fod- 
ders, 62. 

climate of, 44 — 51, 59. 

climate of, shown by vegetation of, 50, 
51. 

climate of. compared with that of New 
York, 49, 50. 

price of lands in, 44, 46, 47, 48, 59. 

wolves in, 64. 
Spain, sheep husbandry of, 62, 63. 

great decrease in wool growing in. 111. 

migratory sheep husbandry of, and its 
disadvantages, 113. 

advantages of, for migratory sheep hus- 
bandry, compared with those of south- 
ern states, 62, 63. 

evil eflects of the Mesta in, 113. 

height, climate, and vegetation of moun- 
tains of, 62, 112. 

general advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry, 62, 63, 112. 

soil and products of, 112. 

number of sheep in, 112. 

decreased exports of wool from, 110,111. 

exports of wool to U. S. in 1836 and 
1846, 111, 124. 

other exports from, 112. 

sheep dogs of, 280—284. 
Spear grass. See Blue grass. 
Spergula arvensis. See Spurry. 
Sphenoid bone, cut of, 236. 
Spirit of salt. See Muriatic acid. 

of tar, use of, in sheep practice, 277. 
Spleen, structure and functions of the, 231, 

232. 
Spurry, as a green manuring crop, South, 74. 



INDEX. 



317 



Staggers. See Hydatid in the brain. 
Stell, description of the. Page 206, 207. 

cut of outside one, 205. 

cut of ancient ones, 206. 

cut of inside circular ones, 207. 

cut of circular one, with racks, &c., 207. 
Sternum, the, 228. 

St. Helena, exports of wool from, 110. 
Stomachs of the sheep, description of, 228 — 
231. 

cuts of the, 228. 

structure and functions of each of the, 
228, 229. 

course of the food through the, 229, 230. 

conflicting theories concerning, 230. 
Storing wool, 189. Also see Wool depots. 
Storms, bad effects of cold ones after shear- 
ing, 191. 
Sturdy. See Hydatid in the brain. 
Sulphate of copper, use of, in sheep prac- 
tice, 275. 
Sulphate of magnesia, use of, in sheep prac- 
tice, 275. 
Sulphur, use of, in sheep medicine, 276. 
Sun-scald, cause and treatment of, 191. 
Swamp mud, its value as a fertilizer, 70. 
Sweden, exports of wool from, 110. 
Sweet-hread. See Pancreas. 
Syria, climate of, 104. 

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 117, 
118. 



T. 



Table 1. Of population, number of sheep, 
pounds of wool, woollen factories, and 
value of manufactured goods in south- 
ern states and in New York, 17. 

2. Of average weight of fleeces in 
southern states and New York, 18, 20, 
21. 

3. Of average weight of fleeces in four 
counties of each of the above states, 
20. 

4. Of comparative value of manures, 40. 

5. Of the flowering of plants, &c., in 
New York, 49. 

6. Of thermometrical observations in 
New York, 50. 

7. Of the average prices of wool in New 
York, 53. 

8. Of importations of wool into Eng- 
land every fifth year, from 1810 to 
1840, 110. 

9. Of importations of wool info U. S. 
annually, from 1837 to 1846, 124. 

10. Of importations of wool into U. S. 
in 1846, with countries from which 
imported, 124. 

11. Of woollens annually imported into 
U. S., during twenty-five years, 125. 

12. Of increase of population in U. S., 
from 1790 to 1840, 127. 

13. Of increase of population and amount 
of wool required in U. S., at difl^ercnt 
periods, for one hundred and fifteen 
years, 128. 

14. Of the progressive reductions in du- 
ties on wool and woollen, under the 
" Compromise Tariflf" of 1833, 159. 

Tagging, necessity of, 173. 
how performed, 173, 174. 
cut explanatory of, 173. 



Tar, propriety of feeding of, to sheep, 194. 

uses of, in sheep practice, 277. 
Tariffs on wool, of France, 106. 
of England, 106. 

of U. S., on wools and woollens, enacted 
in the years 1824, 1828, 1832, 1833, 
1841, 1842, and 1846, 158, 159. 
effect of those of U. S. on the prices of 

wool, 159, 160. 
effect of those of U. S. on importations 

of wool, 159, 160. 
effect of those of U. S. on importations 

of woollens, 160. 
effect of those of U. S. on domestic pro- 
duction of wool, 159. 
effect of those of U. S. on the quality 

of domestic wool, 159, 160. 
frauds practised in invoicing coarse 
wools imported into U. S., under that 
of 1842, 107. 
effect of that of 1846 on manufactures 

of U. S., 106, 125, 126, 161. 
effect of fluctuations in, on manufac- 
tures, 126. 
Tasmania. See Australia, 
Taurida. See Crimea. 
Taylor, Col. John, of Virginia, his erroneous 
views in relation to sheep husbandry, 
72, 81. 
Teeth, number and description of, 237. 
indicative of the age, 237. 
cuts of, at different ages, 237. 
difference in the retention of, by different 

breeds, 238. 
causes of premature loss of, 238. 
should be removed in some cases, 238. 
Temperature, influence of, on quahty of 

wool. See Climate. 
Tennessee, population of, 17. 
number of sheep in, 17. 
pounds of wool grown in, 17. 
average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 
woollen factories in, 17. 
woollen manufactured in, 17. 
fine wooled sheep introduced in, 27. 
fine wooled sheep, wool of, not deterio- 
rated in, 27. 
adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 27, 

48. 
adaptation of mountains of, to sheep 

husbandry, 48. 
price of lands in, 47, 48. 
Tetanus, unusual in U. S., 253. 
Thibet, advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 
118. 
wool exported from, 118. 
Thoracic duct, the, 231. 
Thoracic viscera, the, 234. 
Thorax, the, 234. 
Thyroid glands, the, 236. 

diseases of the, 270, 271. 
Ticks, mode of destroying, and keeping out 

of flock, 192. 
Tobacco, use of, in sheep practice, 277. 
Timothy, the favorite meadow grass, Norlh, 
33. 
as the food of sheep, 212. 
success on southern lowlands question- 
able, 37. 
succeeds on southern mountains, 44, 62. 
Toe-nippers, description and use of, 183. 

cut of, 183. 
Tory weed. See Hound' S'tonnue. 
Trees, clumps of, for winter shelter, 207. 



318 



INDEX. 



Trifolium repens. See Clover, white. 
Tritolium pratense. See Clover, red. 
Troughs, for feeding roots or grain. Page 203. 

for feeding roots or grain, cuts of, 203. 

for folding wool, 187. 

for folding wool, cut of, 187. 
Tunica arachnoides, the, 236. 
Tunisian sheep, introduced into U. S., 151. 

character of, 151, 152. 
Turbinated bones, cut of the, 236. 
Turnips, succeed on the southern mountains, 
62. 

how fed off by sheep in England, 72. 

value of, as a fodder, 213, 216. 

Swedish. See Euta haga. 
Turnsick. See Hydatid m the brain. 
Turpentine, spirits of, use of, in sheep prac- 
tice, 277. 
Turkey, soils and climate of, 118. 

soils and climate of, in Europe, 114. 

face of the country in, 114. 

population of, 114. 

institutions of, unfavorable to sheep hus- 
bandry, 114. 

e.xports of wool from, 109, 110. 

exports of carpets, 108. 
Tuscany, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry, 113. 
Typhus fever, not common in U. S., 238. 



u. 



Ukraine, Merinos introduced in, 117. 

advantages of, for sheep husbandry, 117. 
United States, number of sheep and pounds 
of wool in, in 1839, 123. 

breeds of sheep in, 129. 

exports of wool to England for thirty 
years from, 110. 

exports of wool in 1845, 1846, 122. 

annual imports of wool of, Irom 1837 to 
1846, 124. 

annual imports, from what countries, in 
1846, 124. 

annual imports of woollens, from 1821 
to 1845, 125. 

annual consumption of woollens in, 126, 
127. 

annual consumption of woollens in, per 
head of population, 127. 

proportion of woollens consumed in, do- 
mestic, 126. 

proportion of woollens consumed in, im- 
ported, 126. 

proportion of domestic made in manufac- 
tories, 126. 

proportion of domestic made in families, 
126. 

increase of population in, 127. 

amount of wool which will be requisite 
for population of, at diflerent periods, 
for one hundred and fifteen years, 
128. 

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry. See 
Southern States, New England, Prai- 
ries:, and the states by name. 

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- 
pared with Germany, 116. 

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, Mr. 
Grove's opinion concerning, 116. 

adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, com- 
pared with other countries. See Wool 
growing. 



United States, woollen manufactories of. See 
Woollen factories. 
tariffs of, on wool. See Tariffs. 
(for all other particulars concerning, see 
names of the things in relation to 
which information is sought.) 
Uraguay, in the wool zone, 105. 
U refers, the, 233. 
Urethra, the, 233. 

Urinary organs, description of the, 233. 
Uterus, description of the, 233. 



V. 



Vagina, description of the, 233. 

Van Diemen's Land. See Australia. 

Veins, description of the, 234. 

Vena cava, the, 234. 

Ventricles, the, 234. 

Verdigris, use of, in sheep practice, 277. 

Vetches, dried into hay, value of, as a fodder, 

213. 
Veterinary works, character of American, 
219. 
character of English, 219. 
how far English ones are applicable in 
U. S., 220. 
Virginia, population of, 17. 
number of sheep in, 17. 
wool grown in, 17. 
average weight of fleeces in, 18, 21. 
woollen factories in, 17. 
woollen goods manufactured in, 17. 
adaptation of, to sheep husbandry, 42, 

47, 60. 
adaptation of mountains of, to sheep 

husbandry, 47. 
adaptation of north-western, to sheep 

husbandry, 60. 
winter herbage on mountains of, 62. 
winter pasturage in other parts of, 60. 
cost of keeping sheep in, 60, 61. 
price of lands in, 60. 
Vitriol, blue, value of, in sheep practice, 
275. 
green, use of, in sheep practice, 276. 
oil of, as a caustic in sheep practice, 276. 

w. 

Washing sheep, cut of apparatus for, 181. 

vats and yards for, 181. 

directions for, 182. 

time to elapse after, before shearing, 184. 
Water necessary for drink of sheep, 195,218. 
Weaning lambs, proper time lor, 195. 

how managed, 195. 
Welsh plains, for slave cloths. See Slave 

cloths. 
Wheat, value of, in producing live weight, 
wool, and tallow, 214. 

per cent, of nitrogen in, 214. 

straw of, value of, in different states, as 
a fodder, 213. 

fed to sheep in Germany, 211. 

chaff of, value of, as a fodder, 213. 

bran of, value of, as a fodder, 213. 
Wind-pipe, the, 235. 
Winter feed. See Fodders. 
Wire grass. See Bermuda grass. 
Wirtemberg, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry, 114. 



INDEX. 



319 



Wisconsin, advantages of, for sheep hus- 
bandry. Page 95—103. 
Wolves, in the Southern States, 64. 

how guarded against, 65. See Sheep 
dogs. 
Wool, zone in which it can be profitably 
grown, 103, 104. 

fabrics of See Woollens. 

chemical analysis of, 214. 

quality of that of different breeds com- 
pared, 154. 

growth of, influenced by quantity of 
feed, 28. 

growth of, influenced by kind of feed, 
214. 

quality of, influenced by climate, 23 — 29. 

quality of, influenced by climate, opinions 
of eminent judges on this point, 23 — 
29. 

grows softer and longer in warm cli- 
mates, 28, 29. 

quality of, made coarser by abundant 
feed, 23. 

can this tendency of abundant feed to 
coarsen, be counteracted? 24, 28. 

felting property of, accounted for, 137. 

terms used to express different qualities 
of, 161. 

fine, proper characteristics of 167, 168. 

fine, proper amount of yolk and gum 
of, 167. 

fine, proper length of, 167. 

fine, proper evenness of, 167. 

fine, proper softness and elasticity of, 
168. 

fine, proper serrations of, 168. 

fine, proper color and brilliancy of, 168. 

Merino and Saxon compared, 163. 

cuts of Merino and Saxon, 135 — 137. 

middle character and uses of, 110, 145, 
146. 

middle character of, the sheep which pro- 
dace it, 145. 

cut of the Southdown, 145. 

long, character and uses of, 143, 151. 

long, character of the sheep which pro- 
duce it, 143, 149, 151. 

cut of Leicester, 136. 

comparative profit of growing fine and 
coarse in U. S., 154—163. 

comparative value of fine and coarse for 
strength and wear, 157, 158. 

not a fair discrimination in prices of, 
made by manufacturers of U. S., 160. 

promised improvement in above parti- 
cular, 161. 

shrinkage of, in manufacturing, 86, 88, 
91. 

prices of, in New York, for fourteen 
years, 53. 

prices of, in England, 25. 

amount of, grown in U. S., 123. 

amount of, grown in Southern States, 17. 

amount of, grown in New York, 17. 

average weight of, per fleece, in Southern 
States, 18, 20. 

average weight of, per fleece, in New 
York, 18, 21, 53. 

amount of, grown in U. S., does not 
meet home consumption, 123 — 126. 

amount of annually grown in U. S., 123. 

amount of, consumed in U. S., 123 127. 

amount of, consumed per head in U. S 
127. 



Wool, amount of, imported into U. S., from 

1821 to 1846, 124, 125. 
amount of, exported from U. S., 122. 
amount of, manufactured in U. S., 126, 

127. 
amount of, required to supply demand in 

U. S., at different future periods, 128. 
tal)ie of imports of, into England, 110. 
table, brought down to 1846, 294. 
increase in amount of, imported into 

England, from 1771 to 1840, 123. 
increase in amount of, imported into 

England, from 1840 to 1846, 294. 
increasing demand for, throughout the 

world, 123. 
one of the most marketable agricultural 

products, 77. 
amount of grown in different countries. 

See names of countries, 
comparative profits of growing in differ- 
ent countries. See IVool growing. 
can be more profitably grown in southern 

than northern U. S., 163. 
will northern compete with Southern 

States in growing ? 162. 
method of washing, 181. 
method of washing, cut of arrangements 

for, 181. 
method of shearing, 184. 
method of shearing, cuts of arrange- 
ments for, 184. 
method of doing up, 187 — 189. 
method of doing up, cut of arrangements 

for, 187, 188. 
method of storing in wool room, 189. 
method of sacking, 189. 
room for storing, how arranged, 189. 
depots, origin and objects of, 289. 290. 
depots, plan and regulations of 290. 
depots, advantages of, 291. 
depots, peculiarly advantageous to the 

southern wool grower, 292. 
Woollens, some processes and facts in manu- 
facturing of described, 87, 88. 
amount of, made in factories of U. S., 

126, 127. 
amount of, made in families in U. S., 

126, 127. 
amount of, made in Southern States in 

1839, 17. 
amount of, made in New York, in 1839, 

17. 
amount made in families decreasing, and 

causes, 89. 
amount imported into U. S., from 1821 

to 1845, 125. 
amount consumed in U. S., 126, 127. 
amount consumed per head in U. S., 

127. 
amount required for future consumption 

in U. S., 128. 
for slaves. See Slave cloths. 
Woollen factories, table of, in Southern 

States, and in New York, in 1839, 40. 
rapid increase of in the North, 86. 
further increase of, called for, 125, 126, 

128. 
great profits of in the North, 86 — 93, 

125. 161. 
would be equally profitable in the South, 

86. 
stability of in U. S., 125, 126, 161. 
foreign competition defied by, under 

present tariff, 125. 



320 



INDEX. 



Woollen factories, injured by vacillating 

legislation. Page 126. 
Wool growing, probable increase or decrease 
of, in various countries, 121, 122. 

in U. S., advantages for. See names of 
states and resrions. 

in Alabama, 42, 47, 60. 

in Florida, 42, 60. 

in Georgia, 42, 47, 60. 

in Illinois, 27, 95—103. 

in Indiana, 95—103. 

in Iowa, 95—103. 

in Kentucky, 27, 47, 48. 

in Louisiana, 18, 30, 38. 

in Mississippi, 27, 38. 

in Missouri Territory, 95 — 103. 

in New England, 95. 

in New Jersey, 95. 

in North Carolina, 43 — 46. 

in Ohio, 95. 

in Pennsylvania, 95. 

on prairies, 95 — 103. 

in South Carolina, 47, 58—60. 

in Tennessee, 27, 48. 

in Virginia, 42, 47, 60. 

in Wisconsin, 95 — 103. 
Wool growing in foreign countries. See 
names of countries. 

in Afghanistan, 118. 

in Asia Minor, 118. 

in Australia, 25, 119—121, 294. 

in Austria, 114 — 116. 

in Baden, 114. 

in Bavaria, 114. 

in Beloochistan, 118. 

in Buenos Ayres, 105, 106. 

in Cabul, 118. 

in Cape of Good Hope, 65, 119. 

in China, 118. 

in Crimea, 117. 

in England, 111. 

in P'rance, 111. 

in Germany, 114 — 116. 

in Great Bucharia, 118. 

in Greece, 114. 

in Hungary, 116. 117. 

in Independent Tartary, 118. 

in Italy, 113. 

in Lonibardy, 113. 



Wool growing, in Mexico, 105. 

n Modena, 113. 

n Naples, 113. 

n Papal States, 113. 

n Parma, 113. 

n Persia, 104, 118. 

n Prussia, 114, 116. 

n Russia, 117. 

n Sardinia, 113. 

n Saxony, 116, 

n Silesia, 104, 114, 115. 

n South America, 105, 106. 

n Spain, 62, 112. 

n Turkey, 114, 118. 

n Tuscany, 113. 

n Ukraine, 117. 

n Van Diemen's Land, 121. 

n Wirtemberg, 114. 
Wool market, of the world, 108, 109, 123. 
of England, 108, 110, 294. 
of France, 108, 109, 
of German States, 114, 295, 296. 
of United States, 123—128. 
foreign producers cannot compete with 

us in that of U. S., 108, 122, 123. 
U. S. producers can compete in foreign, 

with foreign producer, 108, 122, 296. 
prospect of increase in, universally, 123, 
296. 
Wool oil. See Yolk. 

Y. 

Yards for sheep in winter, 199. 

necessary in the North, 200. 
Yoking rams, how done, 193. 
Yolk of wools, chemical analysis of, 182. 

proper amount of, in fleece, 167. 
Youatt, his character as a veterinary writer, 
219. 



z. 



Zinc, carbonate of, use of, in sheep practice, 
27. 
sulphate of, use of, in sheep practice, 
239. 



THE END. 



3Q9 



